Basic information on geography. Geography - definition, history, major branches and scientific disciplines. Economic and social geography

The fascinating subject of geography is a scientific field that studies the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, and the interaction between human society and the environment. The word geography literally translated from ancient Greek means “description of the earth.” Below is a general definition of the term geography:

“Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies the physical features of the Earth and the environment, including the influence of human activities on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production.”

Scientists who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although cartographers of the ancient world were known as geographers, today this is a relatively distinct specialization. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas of geographical study: physical geography and human geography.

History of the development of geography

The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps surrounding area, and also explained the differences between people and natural landscapes V different places Earth. Over time, the rich heritage of geography has taken a fateful journey into the brightest Islamic minds. The Islamic Golden Age witnessed amazing achievements in the field of geographical sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for their innovative discoveries. New lands were explored and the first grid base for the map system was developed. Chinese civilization also contributed instrumentally to the development of early geography. The compass, developed by the Chinese, was used by explorers to explore the unknown.

A new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographical discoveries, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. A new interest in geography arose in the European world. Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant and traveler, led this new era of exploration. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia, such as China and India, became the main impetus for travel in those times. Europeans advanced in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures and... Geography's enormous potential for shaping the future of human civilization was recognized and, in the 18th century, it was introduced as a core discipline at university level. Based on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the flourishing of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and sophisticated software radically changed the science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.

Branches of geography

Geography can be considered as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in Earth space, as well as develop ways to solve problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas of scientific research. The primary classification of geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.

Physical geography

Defined as a branch of geography that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.

Physical geography is further subdivided into the following branches:

• Geomorphology: deals with the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps clarify various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also attempts to predict future changes in the physical characteristics of the Earth's appearance.
• Glaciology: a branch of physical geography that studies the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subdisciplines of glaciological studies.
• Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all the water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is dedicated to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study marine flora, fauna and ecosystems of the ocean), chemical oceanography (the study chemical composition sea ​​waters and their effects on marine life forms), physical oceanography (the study of ocean movements such as waves, currents, tides).
• Hydrology: another important branch of physical geography, dealing with the study of the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. She explores the planet's rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the Earth's surface, through.
• Soil Science: branch of science that studies different types of soils in their natural environment on the surface of the Earth. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the process of formation (soil formation), composition, texture and classification of soils.
• : an indispensable discipline of physical geography that studies the distribution of living organisms in the geographic space of the planet. She also studies the distribution of species over geological time periods. Each geographic region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship to physical geographic features. There are various branches of biogeography: zoogeography (geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (study of factors influencing individual ecosystems), etc.
• Paleogeography: branch of physical geography that studies geographical features at different points in time in the geological history of the Earth. Science helps geographers gain information about continental positions and plate tectonics, determined through the study of paleomagnetism and fossil records.
• Climatology: scientific study of climate, as well as the most important branch of geographical research in the modern world. Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate, as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on climate, and vice versa.
• Meteorology: is studying weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena affecting local and global weather.
• Environmental Geography: explores the interactions between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment from a spatial perspective.
• Coastal geography: a specialized field of physical geography that also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of the dynamic interaction between the coastal zone and the sea. Physical processes that form coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape changes. The study also seeks to understand the impacts of coastal communities on coastal topography and ecosystems.
• Quaternary geology: a highly specialized section of physical geography that studies the Quaternary period of the Earth ( geographical history Earth, covering the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about environmental changes that occurred in the planet's recent past. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
• Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation and storage of data about the earth's surface.
• Landscape ecology: a science that studies the influence of various landscapes of the Earth on the ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.

Human Geography

Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the impact of anthropogenic activities on the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed creatures of the world from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.

This branch of geography is divided into various disciplines depending on the focus of the research:

• Geography population: studies how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle, and migration of human populations.
• Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. Although this section is considered as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography attempts to understand why, how, and when places and regions of the Earth change and the impact they have on human society.
• Cultural Geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change across spaces and places. Thus, it studies the spatial variations of human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, etc.
• Economical geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of the location, distribution and organization of human economic activity in geographical space.
• Political geography: examines the political boundaries of countries around the world and the divisions between countries. She also studies how spatial structures influence political functions and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the subdisciplines of political geography.
• Geography of health: explores the impact of geographic location on people's health and well-being.
• Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living of the world's human population and attempts to understand how and why such standards vary across places and spaces.
• Geography settlements: deals with the study of urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
• Geography of animals: studies animal world Earth and the interdependence between people and animals.

Current state of geodesy

The beginning of modern fifth period The development of geodesy coincides with the launch of the first artificial Earth satellites (AES). The emergence of satellites opened up new opportunities for solving scientific and practical problems of geodesy and marked the beginning of space geodesy. A striking example of this is the emergence of global positioning systems GPS and GLONASS. The parameters of the global ellipsoid were determined from satellite measurements.

An important scientific and technical achievement that literally revolutionized the processes of performing geodetic work is the emergence of computer technology. Their use allowed:

Create automated geodetic instruments, which increases labor productivity and reliability of measurement results;

Quickly mathematically process large volumes of geodetic measurement results;

Store large amounts of geodetic data in databases and quickly access them;

Present geodetic data in computer graphics formats that are convenient for consumers of geodetic data and solve their specific problems.

From geography we know that: The Earth is a sphere, almost two-thirds of the Earth's surface is covered with water. The surface itself is uneven. There are plains and mountains, both on land and under water (Fig. 31).

Rice. 31. Physical surface of the Earth

The most high mountain located in Tibet. This is Chomolungma (Everest), 8848 meters above sea level. The deepest ocean trench is the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. Its depth is 10994 meters below sea level. Thus, the maximum difference in landforms on the planet is less than 19 km.

There are 6 continents on Earth (Eurasia, North America, South America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica) and 4 oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic)

Rice. 32. Geographic map

The entire surface of the Earth or part of it can be depicted in the form of a geographical map (Fig. 32).

To describe the position of objects on the Earth's surface, there is a system of geographic coordinates - latitudes and longitudes, measured in degrees and minutes of arc (Fig. 32).

To do this, meridians and parallels are drawn along the surface of the Earth.

Meridians go from pole to pole. Meridians are counted from the prime meridian - Greenwich to the east (eastern longitude) and west (western longitude). St. Petersburg is located on the meridian 30° east.

The change of day and night is caused by the fact that the Earth rotates around its axis, completing a full rotation in 24 hours. The next date starts at midnight. But on different meridians midnight comes at different time. If it is day in St. Petersburg, then in the USA it is night. It turns out that each meridian has its own time, which is called local time. For example, if in St. Petersburg there is 1 hour (1 h) of local time, then in Moscow it is approximately 1.5 h of local time. Local time is used, for example, in making astronomical observations. Under normal conditions, such time counting is inconvenient. Therefore, standard time is used everywhere, and in Russian Federation also maternity and summer.

Each rotation of the planet adds one day, that is, after standard (maternity, summer) time is received, the next date comes. To coordinate dates around the world established date line, which runs approximately along the 180º meridian. Therefore, if, for example, September 16 comes at midnight in Alaska, then 3 hours later, September 17 comes at midnight in Chukotka.

Parallels run parallel to the equator. Latitude is determined by parallels. Latitudes are counted both north (northern latitude) and south (south latitude) of the equator. Accordingly, the latitude of the North Pole is +90° N, the latitude of the South Pole is -90° S.

There are four specific parallels. Northern Tropic or the Tropic of Cancer - a parallel in which at noon on the day of the summer solstice on June 22, the Sun will be exactly at its zenith. It runs along the parallel 23º 27" N. South Tropic or the Tropic of Capricorn runs along the parallel 23º 27" S, respectively.

Arctic Circle- a parallel, north of which polar day and polar night can be observed. Its latitude is 66º 44" N, for South Arctic Circle- 66º 44" S respectively.

From a geographic map you can determine geographical coordinates any object depicted on it. For example, from a fragment of a geographical map in Figure 33, you can approximately determine the coordinates of St. Petersburg as follows: latitude 60° N, longitude 30° E.

Rice. 33. Fragment of a geographical map

In addition, using a geographic map, you can determine the height (depth) of a point above sea level.

The latitude and longitude of a point are inherently global (global), absolute coordinates. Often there is a need for a point to describe its position relative to another point. Such coordinates are called relative. Consider Figure 34.

Rice. 34. Relative coordinates of points

There are two points on the geographical map: point 1 And point 2 . The first coordinate is the distance S 1-2 , which is determined in a known way - the distance on the map is measured, for example, with a ruler and the distance on the ground is calculated based on the scale of the map.

The second coordinate is azimuth. To determine it, you need to:

Draw a line on the map connecting both points;

Draw lines of meridians of points on the map (“meridian point 1” and “meridian point 2”);

Using a protractor, measure the angles between the meridians and the line connecting the points; The angle is measured from the north direction of the meridian clockwise.

The measured angles are the azimuths. It is believed that for point 1 azimuth A 1-2 is direct, A A 2-1 - reverse. For point 2 - vice versa.

Race is a historically established group of people that has common physical features: skin, eye and hair color, eye shape, eyelid structure, head shape, and others. Previously, it was common to divide races into “black” (Blacks), yellow (Asians) and white (Europeans), but now this classification is considered outdated and incomplete.

The simplest modern division is not too different from the “color” division. According to it, there are 3 main or large races: Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid. Representatives of these three races have significant distinctive features.

Negroids are characterized by curly black hair, dark brown skin (sometimes almost black), brown eyes, strongly protruding jaws, a slightly protruding wide nose, and thick lips.

Caucasians typically have wavy or straight hair, relatively fair skin, varying eye colors, slightly protruding jaws, a narrow, prominent nose with a high bridge, and typically thin or medium lips.

Mongoloids have straight, coarse dark hair, yellowish skin tones, brown eyes, narrow eye shape, a flattened face with strongly prominent cheekbones, a narrow or medium-wide nose with a low bridge, and moderately thick lips.

In the expanded classification, it is customary to distinguish several more racial groups. For example, the Amerindian race (Indians, American race) is the indigenous population of the American continent. It is physiologically close to the Mongoloid race, however, the settlement of America began more than 20 thousand years ago, therefore, according to experts, it is incorrect to consider the Amerindians a branch of the Mongoloids.

Australoids (Australo-Oceanian race) are the indigenous population of Australia. An ancient race that had a huge range, limited to the regions: Hindustan, Tasmania, Hawaii, Kuril Islands. The appearance features of indigenous Australians - a large nose, beard, long wavy hair, massive eyebrows, powerful jaws - sharply distinguish them from Negroids.

Currently, there are few pure representatives of their races left. Mostly mestizos live on our planet - the result of a mixture of different races, which may have characteristics of different racial groups.

Time zones are conventionally defined parts of the Earth in which the same local time.

Before the introduction of standard time, each city used its own local time. solar time, depending on geographic longitude. However, it was very inconvenient, especially in terms of train schedules. The modern time zone system first appeared in North America at the end of the 19th century. In Russia it became widespread in 1917, and by 1929 it was accepted throughout the world.

For greater convenience (in order not to enter local time for each degree of longitude), the Earth's surface was conventionally divided into 24 time zones. The boundaries of time zones are determined not by meridians, but by administrative units(states, cities, regions). This is also done for greater convenience. When moving from one time zone to another, the minutes and seconds (time) are usually preserved; only in some countries, local time differs from world time by 30 or 45 minutes.

The Greenwich Observatory in the suburbs of London was taken as the reference point (prime meridian or belt). On the North and South Poles The meridians converge at one point, so time zones are usually not observed there. Time at the poles is usually equated to universal time, although at polar stations it is sometimes kept in its own way.

GMT -12 - Date meridian

GMT -11 - o. Midway, Samoa

GMT -10 - Hawaii

GMT -9 - Alaska

GMT -8 - Pacific Time (USA and Canada), Tijuana

GMT -7 - Mountain Time, USA and Canada (Arizona), Mexico (Chihuahua, La Paz, Mazatlan)

GMT -6 - Central Time (USA and Canada), Central American Time, Mexico (Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey)

GMT -5 - Eastern Time (USA and Canada), South American Pacific Time (Bogota, Lima, Quito)

GMT -4 - Atlantic Time (Canada), South American Pacific Time (Caracas, La Paz, Santiago)

GMT -3 - South American Eastern Time (Brasilia, Buenos Aires, Georgetown), Greenland

GMT -2 - Middle Atlantic Time

GMT -1 - Azores, Cape Verde

GMT - Greenwich Time (Dublin, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London), Casablanca, Monrovia

GMT +1 - Central European Time (Amsterdam, Berlin, Bern, Brussels, Vienna, Copenhagen, Madrid, Paris, Rome, Stockholm), Belgrade, Bratislava, Budapest, Warsaw, Ljubljana, Prague, Sarajevo, Skopje, Zagreb), West Central African Time

GMT +2 - Eastern European Time (Athens, Bucharest, Vilnius, Kyiv, Chisinau, Minsk, Riga, Sofia, Tallinn, Helsinki, Kaliningrad), Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, South Africa

GMT +3 - Moscow time, East African time (Nairobi, Addis Ababa), Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia

GMT +4 - Samara time, United United Arab Emirates, Oman, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia

GMT +5 - Ekaterinburg time, West Asian time (Islamabad, Karachi, Tashkent)

GMT +6 - Novosibirsk, Omsk time, Central Asian time (Bangladesh, Kazakhstan), Sri Lanka

GMT +7 - Krasnoyarsk time, Southeast Asia (Bangkok, Jakarta, Hanoi)

GMT +8 - Irkutsk time, Ulaanbaatar, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Taiwan, Western Australian time (Perth)

GMT +9 - Yakut time, Korea, Japan

GMT +10 - Vladivostok time, Eastern Australian time (Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Sydney), Tasmania, Western Pacific time (Guam, Port Moresby)

GMT +11 - Magadan time, Central Pacific time ( Solomon islands, New Caledonia)

GMT +12 - Wellington

A wind rose is a diagram that depicts the pattern of changes in wind directions and speeds in a certain place over a certain period of time. It got its name due to its rose-like pattern. The first wind roses were known even before our era.

It is assumed that the wind rose was invented by sailors who were trying to identify patterns of changes in winds depending on the time of year. She helped determine when to start sailing in order to get to a certain destination.

The diagram is constructed as follows: on those going from a common center to different directions The rays display the repeatability value (as a percentage) or wind speed. The rays correspond to the cardinal directions: north, west, east, south, northeast, north-northeast, etc. Currently, the wind rose is usually constructed using long-term data for a month, season, or year.

Clouds are classified using Latin words to define appearance clouds observed from the ground. The word cumulus is the definition of cumulus clouds, stratus - stratus clouds, cirrus - cirrus, nimbus - nimbus.

In addition to the type of clouds, the classification describes their location. Usually there are several groups of clouds, the first three of which are determined by their height above the ground. The fourth group consists of clouds of vertical development, and the last group includes clouds of mixed types.

Upper clouds are formed in temperate latitudes above 5 km, in polar latitudes above 3 km, in tropical latitudes above 6 km. The temperature at this altitude is quite low, so they consist mainly of ice crystals. The upper level clouds are usually thin and white. The most common forms of upper clouds are cirrus and cirrostratus, which can usually be seen in good weather.

Mid-level clouds usually located at an altitude of 2-7 km in temperate latitudes, 2-4 km in polar latitudes and 2-8 km in tropical latitudes. They consist mainly of small particles of water, but at low temperatures they can also contain ice crystals. The most common types of mid-level clouds are altocumulus (altocumulus), altostratus (altostratus). They may have shadowed parts, which distinguishes them from cirrocumulus clouds. This type of cloud usually occurs as a result of air convection, as well as the gradual rise of air ahead of a cold front.

Low clouds They are located at altitudes below 2 km, where the temperature is quite high, so they consist mainly of water droplets. Only in the cold season. When the surface temperature is low, they contain particles of ice (hail) or snow. The most common types of low clouds are nimbostratus and stratocumulus - dark low clouds accompanied by moderate precipitation.

Clouds of vertical development - cumulus clouds, having the appearance of isolated cloud masses, the vertical dimensions of which are similar to the horizontal ones. They arise as a result of temperature convection and can reach heights of 12 km. The main types are fair weather cumulus (fair weather clouds) and cumulonimbus (cumulonimbus). Good weather clouds look like pieces of cotton wool. Their lifetime is from 5 to 40 minutes. Young fair weather clouds have sharply defined edges and bases, while the edges of older clouds are jagged and blurry.

Other types of clouds: contrails, billow clouds, mammatus, orographic, and pileus.

Atmospheric precipitation is water in a liquid or solid state that falls from clouds or is deposited from the air on the surface of the Earth (dew, frost). There are two main types of precipitation: blanket precipitation (occurs mainly during the passage of a warm front) and torrential precipitation (associated with cold fronts). Precipitation is measured by the thickness of the layer of water that fell over a certain period (usually mm/year). On average, precipitation on Earth is about 1000 mm/year. Precipitation below this value is called insufficient, and more is called excessive.

Water does not form in the sky - it gets there from the earth's surface. This happens in the following way: under the influence of sunlight, moisture gradually evaporates from the surface of the planet (mainly from the surface of oceans, seas and other bodies of water), then water vapor gradually rises upward, where under the influence of low temperatures it condenses (gas is converted into a liquid state) and freezing. This is how clouds are formed. As the mass of liquid in a cloud accumulates, it also becomes heavier. When a certain mass is reached, moisture from the cloud spills onto the ground in the form of rain.

If precipitation falls in an area with low temperatures, droplets of moisture freeze on their way to the ground, turning into snow. Sometimes they seem to stick together, causing snow to fall out in large flakes. This happens most often at not very low temperatures and strong wind. When the temperature is close to zero, the snow, approaching the ground, melts and becomes wet. Such snowflakes, falling to the ground or objects, immediately turn into drops of water. In those areas of the planet where the surface of the earth has managed to freeze, snow can remain as a cover for up to several months. In some particularly cold regions of the Earth (at the poles or high in the mountains), precipitation falls only in the form of snow, while in warm regions (tropics, the equator) there is no snow at all.

When frozen water particles move within a cloud, they expand and become denser. In this case, small pieces of ice are formed, which in this state fall to the ground. This is how hail is formed. Hail can fall even in summer - the ice does not have time to melt even when the surface temperature is high. The sizes of hailstones can vary: from a few millimeters to several centimeters.

Sometimes moisture does not have time to rise into the sky, and then condensation occurs directly on the surface of the earth. This usually occurs when the temperature drops at night. IN summer time You can observe moisture settling on the surface of leaves and grass in the form of water droplets - this is dew. During the cold season, the smallest particles of water freeze, and frost forms instead of dew.

Soils are classified by type. The first scientist to classify soils was Dokuchaev. The following types of soils are found on the territory of the Russian Federation: Podzolic soils, tundra gley soils, Arctic soils, frozen-taiga soils, gray and brown forest soils and chestnut soils.

Tundra gley soils are found on plains. They are formed without much influence from vegetation. These soils are found in areas where there is permafrost (in the Northern Hemisphere). Often, gley soils are places where deer live and feed in summer and winter. An example of tundra soils in Russia is Chukotka, and in the world it is Alaska in the USA. In areas with such soils, people engage in farming. Potatoes, vegetables and various herbs grow on such land. To improve the fertility of tundra gley soils, the following types of work are used in agriculture: drainage of the most moisture-saturated lands and irrigation of arid areas. Methods for improving the fertility of these soils also include adding organic and mineral fertilizers.

Arctic soils are produced by thawing permafrost. This soil is quite thin. The maximum layer of humus (fertile layer) is 1-2 cm. This type of soil has a low acidic environment. This soil cannot be restored due to the harsh climate. These soils are common in Russia only in the Arctic (on a number of islands of the Northern Arctic Ocean). Due to the harsh climate and small layer of humus, nothing grows on such soils.

Podzolic soils are common in forests. There is only 1-4% humus in the soil. Podzolic soils are obtained through the process of podzol formation. A reaction occurs with the acid. That is why this type of soil is also called acidic. Dokuchaev was the first to describe podzolic soils. In Russia, podzolic soils are common in Siberia and the Far East. Around the world, podzolic soils are found in Asia, Africa, Europe, the USA and Canada. Such soils must be properly cultivated in agriculture. They need to be fertilized, organic and mineral fertilizers added to them. Such soils are more useful in logging than in agriculture. After all, trees grow better on them than crops. Soddy-podzolic soils are a subtype of podzolic soils. Their composition is largely similar to podzolic soils. A characteristic feature of these soils is that they can be washed out more slowly by water, unlike podzolic soils. Soddy-podzolic soils are found mainly in the taiga (the territory of Siberia). This soil contains up to 10% fertile layer on the surface, and at depth the layer sharply decreases to 0.5%.

Permafrost-taiga soils were formed in forests under permafrost conditions. They are found only in continental climates. The most great depths these soils do not exceed 1 meter. This is caused by the proximity to the surface of permafrost. The humus content is only 3-10%. As a subspecies, there are mountainous permafrost-taiga soils. They form in the taiga on rocks that are covered with ice only in winter. These soils are found in Eastern Siberia. They are found in the Far East. More often, mountainous permafrost-taiga soils are found next to small bodies of water. Outside Russia, such soils exist in Canada and Alaska.

Gray forest soils are formed in forest areas. A prerequisite for the formation of such soils is the presence of a continental climate. Deciduous forest and herbaceous vegetation. The places of formation contain an element necessary for such soil - calcium. Thanks to this element, water does not penetrate deep into the soil and does not erode them. These soils are gray in color. The humus content in gray forest soils is 2-8 percent, that is, the soil fertility is average. Gray forest soils are divided into gray, light gray, and dark gray. These soils predominate in Russia in the territory from Transbaikalia to Carpathian Mountains. Fruit and grain crops are grown on the soils.

Brown forest soils are common in forests: mixed, coniferous and broad-leaved. These soils are found only in warm temperate climates. The soil color is brown. Typically brown soils look like this: on the surface of the ground there is a layer of fallen leaves, about 5 cm high. Next comes the fertile layer, which is 20 and sometimes 30 cm. Even lower is a layer of clay of 15-40 cm. There are several subtypes of brown soils. Subtypes vary depending on temperatures. There are: typical, podzolized, gley (surface gley and pseudopodzolic). On the territory of the Russian Federation, soils are distributed in the Far East and in the foothills of the Caucasus. Low-maintenance crops such as tea, grapes and tobacco are grown on these soils. Forests grow well on such soils.

Chestnut soils are common in steppes and semi-deserts. The fertile layer of such soils is 1.5-4.5%. Which indicates average soil fertility. This soil has chestnut, light chestnut and dark chestnut colors. Accordingly, there are three subtypes of chestnut soil, differing in color. On light chestnut soils, farming is possible only with abundant watering. The main purpose of this land is pasture. The following crops grow well on dark chestnut soils without watering: wheat, barley, oats, sunflower, millet. There are slight differences in the chemical composition of chestnut soil. It is divided into clayey, sandy, sandy loam, light loamy, medium loamy and heavy loamy. Each of them has a slightly different chemical composition. The chemical composition of chestnut soil is varied. The soil contains magnesium, calcium, and water-soluble salts. Chestnut soil tends to recover quickly. Its thickness is maintained by annually falling grass and leaves of trees rare in the steppe. You can get good harvests from it, provided there is a lot of moisture. After all, steppes are usually dry. Chestnut soils in Russia are common in the Caucasus, the Volga region and Central Siberia.

There are many types of soils on the territory of the Russian Federation. They all differ in chemical and mechanical composition. At the moment, agriculture is on the verge of crisis. Russian soils must be valued like the land on which we live. Care for soils: fertilize them and prevent erosion (destruction).

The biosphere is a collection of parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, which is populated by living organisms. This term was introduced in 1875 by the Austrian geologist E. Suess. The biosphere does not occupy a definite position, like other shells, but is located within their boundaries. Thus, waterfowl and aquatic plants are part of the hydrosphere, birds and insects are part of the atmosphere, and plants and animals living in the ground are part of the lithosphere. The biosphere also covers everything related to the activities of living beings.

Living organisms contain about 60 chemical elements, the main of which are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, iron and calcium. Living organisms can adapt to life in extreme conditions. Spores of some plants can withstand ultra-low temperatures down to -200°C, and some microorganisms (bacteria) survive at temperatures up to 250°C. The inhabitants of the deep sea withstand enormous water pressure, which would instantly crush a person.

Living organisms do not only mean animals, plants, bacteria and fungi are also considered living things. Moreover, plants account for 99% of the biomass, while animals and microorganisms account for only 1%. Thus, plants make up the vast majority of the biosphere. The biosphere is a powerful reservoir of solar energy. This occurs due to plant photosynthesis. Thanks to living organisms, the circulation of substances on the planet occurs.

According to experts, life on Earth originated approximately 3.5 billion years ago in the World Ocean. This is exactly the age that was assigned to the oldest organic remains found. Since scientists estimate the age of our planet to be around 4.6 billion years, we can say that living beings appeared at an early stage of the Earth’s development. The biosphere has the greatest influence on the rest of the Earth's shells, although not always beneficial. Inside the shell, living organisms also actively interact with each other.

The atmosphere (from the Greek atmos - steam and sphaira - ball) is the gaseous shell of the Earth, which is held by its gravity and rotates with the planet. The physical state of the atmosphere is determined by climate, and the main parameters of the atmosphere are composition, density, pressure and air temperature. Air density and atmospheric pressure decrease with altitude. The atmosphere is divided into several layers depending on temperature changes: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere. Between these layers there are transitional regions called the tropopause, stratopause, and so on.

The troposphere is the lower layer of the atmosphere, in the polar regions it is located up to a height of 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes up to 10-12 km, and at the equator - 16-18 km. The troposphere contains about 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere and almost all water vapor. The air density here is greatest. For every 100 m rise, the temperature in the troposphere decreases by an average of 0.65°. The upper layer of the troposphere, which is intermediate between it and the stratosphere, is called the tropopause.

The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere, which is located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Here, the temperature, on the contrary, increases with altitude. At the border with the troposphere it reaches approximately -56ºС, and at an altitude of about 50 km it rises to 0ºС. The region between the stratosphere and mesosphere is called the stratopause. In the stratosphere there is a layer called the ozone layer, which determines the upper limit of the biosphere. The ozone layer is also a kind of shield that protects living organisms from the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. Complex chemical processes occurring in this shell are accompanied by the release of light energy (for example, northern lights). About 20% of the atmosphere's mass is concentrated here.

The next layer of the atmosphere is the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 50 km and ends at an altitude of 80-90 km. The air temperature in the mesosphere decreases with height and reaches -90ºС in its upper part. The intermediate layer between the mesosphere and the thermosphere that follows it is the mesopause.

The thermosphere or ionosphere begins at an altitude of 80-90 km and ends at an altitude of 800 km. The air temperature here rises quite quickly, reaching several hundred and even thousands of degrees.

The last part of the atmosphere is the exosphere or scattering zone. It is located above 800 km. This space is already practically devoid of air. At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually turns into the so-called near-space vacuum, which does not enter the Earth's atmosphere.

The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth, which is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere and is a collection of oceans, seas and surface waters of the land. The hydrosphere also includes groundwater, ice and snow, water contained in the atmosphere and in living organisms. The bulk of water is concentrated in the seas and oceans, rivers and lakes, which cover 71% of the planet's surface. The second place in terms of volume of water is occupied by groundwater, the third is ice and snow in the Arctic and Antarctic regions and mountainous regions. The total volume of water on Earth is approximately 1.39 billion km³.

Water, along with oxygen, is one of the most important substances on earth. It is part of all living organisms on the planet. For example, a person consists of approximately 80% water. Water also plays an important role in shaping the topography of the Earth's surface and transporting chemicals deep within the Earth and on its surface.

Water vapor contained in the atmosphere acts as a powerful solar radiation filter and climate regulator.

The main volume of water on the planet is made up of the salty waters of the World Ocean. On average, their salinity is 35 ppm (1 kg of ocean water contains 35 g of salts). The highest salinity of water in the Dead Sea is 270-300 ppm. For comparison, in the Mediterranean Sea this figure is 35-40 ppm, in the Black Sea - 18 ppm, and in the Baltic Sea - only 7. According to experts, the chemical composition of ocean waters is in many ways similar to the composition of human blood - they contain almost all known chemical elements to us, only in different proportions. The chemical composition of fresher groundwater is more diverse and depends on the composition of the host rocks and the depth of occurrence.

The waters of the hydrosphere are in constant interaction with the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. This interaction is expressed in the transition of water from one type to another, and is called the water cycle. According to most scientists, it was in water that life on our planet originated.

Volumes of hydrosphere waters:

Sea and ocean waters – 1370 million km³ (94% of the total volume)

Groundwater – 61 million km³ (4%)

Ice and snow – 24 million km³ (2%)

Land bodies of water (rivers, lakes, swamps, reservoirs) – 500 thousand km³ (0.4%)

The lithosphere is the solid shell of the Earth, which includes the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle. The thickness of the lithosphere on land on average ranges from 35-40 km (in flat areas) to 70 km (in mountainous areas). Under the ancient mountains the thickness of the earth's crust is even greater: for example, under the Himalayas its thickness reaches 90 km. The Earth's crust under the oceans is also the lithosphere. Here it is thinnest - on average about 7-10 km, and in some areas Pacific Ocean- up to 5 km.

The thickness of the earth's crust can be determined by the speed of propagation of seismic waves. The latter also provide some information about the properties of the mantle located under the earth's crust and included in the lithosphere. The lithosphere, as well as the hydrosphere and atmosphere, was formed mainly as a result of the release of substances from the upper mantle of the young Earth. Its formation continues today, mainly at the bottom of the oceans.

Most of the lithosphere is made up of crystalline substances that were formed during the cooling of magma - molten matter in the depths of the Earth. As the magma cooled, hot solutions formed. Walking through the cracks in earth's crust, they cooled and released the substances they contained. Since some minerals disintegrate with changes in temperature and pressure, they were transformed into new substances on the surface.

The lithosphere is exposed to the influence of the air and water shells of the Earth (atmosphere and hydrosphere), which is expressed in weathering processes. Physical weathering is a mechanical process by which rock is crushed into smaller particles without changing its chemical composition. Chemical weathering leads to the formation of new substances. The rate of weathering is influenced by the biosphere, as well as land topography and climate, water composition and other factors.

As a result of weathering, loose continental sediments were formed, the thickness of which ranges from 10-20 cm on steep slopes to tens of meters on plains and hundreds of meters in depressions. These deposits formed soils that play a vital role in the interaction of living organisms with the earth’s crust.

Terrain orientation includes determining one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or chosen direction of movement towards a specific object. The ability to navigate the terrain is especially necessary when you are in sparsely populated and unfamiliar areas.

You can navigate using a map, a compass, or the stars. Landmarks can also be various objects of natural (river, swamp, tree) or artificial (lighthouse, tower) origin.

When navigating on a map, it is necessary to associate the image on the map with a real object. The easiest way is to go to the bank of a river or road, and then turn the map until the direction of the line (road, river) on the map coincides with the direction of the line on the ground. Objects located to the right and left of the line on the ground should be on the same sides as on the map.

Orienting a map using a compass is used mainly in terrain that is difficult to navigate (in a forest, in a desert), where it is usually difficult to find landmarks. Under these conditions, the compass is used to determine the direction to the north, and the map is positioned with the upper side of the frame towards the north so that the vertical line of the map coordinate grid coincides with the longitudinal axis of the magnetic needle of the compass. Please be aware that compass readings may be affected by metal objects, power lines and electronic devices located in close proximity to the compass.

After the location on the ground is determined, you need to determine the direction of movement and azimuth (deviation of the direction of movement in degrees from the north pole of the compass clockwise). If the route is not a straight line, then you need to accurately determine the distance after which you need to change the direction of movement. You can also select a specific landmark on the map and, having then found it on the ground, change the direction of movement from it.

In the absence of a compass, the cardinal directions can be determined as follows:

The bark of most trees is rougher and darker on the north side;

On coniferous trees, resin tends to accumulate on the south side;

The annual rings on fresh stumps on the north side are located closer to each other;

On the north side there are trees, stones, stumps, etc. covered earlier and more abundantly with lichens and fungi;

Anthills are located on the southern side of trees, stumps and bushes, the southern slope of the anthills is gentle, the northern slope is steep;

In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side;

Separate trees have crowns that are more luxuriant and denser on the south side;

Altars Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirks face east, and the main entrances are located on the west side;

The raised end of the lower crossbar of the church cross faces north.

A geographic map is a visual representation of the earth's surface on a plane. The map shows the location and state of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is shown on the maps, they are called political, physical, etc.

Cards are classified according to various criteria:

By scale: large-scale (1: 10,000 - 1: 100,000), medium-scale (1: 200,000 - 1: 1,000,000) and small-scale maps (smaller than 1: 1,000,000). Scale determines the relationship between the actual size of an object and the size of its image on the map. Knowing the scale of the map (it is always indicated on it), you can use simple calculations and special measuring instruments (ruler, curvimeter) to determine the size of an object or the distance from one object to another.

Based on their content, maps are divided into general geographical and thematic. Thematic maps are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Physico- geographic Maps used to show, for example, the nature of the relief of the earth's surface or climatic conditions in a certain area. Socio-economic maps show the borders of countries, the location of roads, industrial facilities, etc.

Based on territory coverage, geographic maps are divided into world maps, maps of continents and parts of the world, regions of the world, individual countries and parts of countries (regions, cities, districts, etc.).

According to their purpose, geographic maps are divided into reference, educational, navigation, etc.

There is a democratic federal legal state with a republican form of government.

The names Russian Federation and Russia are equivalent (Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 1).

The head of state is the President of the Russian Federation, elected for four years by citizens of the Russian Federation on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage.

State power in the Russian Federation is exercised on the basis of division into legislative, executive and judicial.

The legislative body is the Federal Assembly - the parliament of the Russian Federation, consisting of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.

Executive power in the Russian Federation is exercised by the Government of the Russian Federation, consisting of the Chairman of the Government, his deputies and federal ministers.

Moscow is the capital of the Russian Federation

Justice in the Russian Federation is administered only by the court.

Russia's form of government is a federation, which includes 83 equal subjects: 21 republics, 9 territories, 46 regions, 2 cities federal significance, 1 autonomous region, 4 autonomous districts.

Russian Federation - Russia is the world's largest state by area, occupying 17,098.2 thousand km2, which is approximately 1/8 of the land (not counting).

The total population of Russia at the beginning of 2008 was 142.7 million people, of which the urban population accounted for 73%, the rural population - 27%. Average population density is 8.3 people. per 1 km2.

The capital of the state is Moscow (10.4 million people, 2008)

The official language of the state is Russian.

The monetary unit is the ruble.

Russia is located in the northeastern part of the largest continent, occupying about 1/3 of its territory, including the eastern part of Europe and northern Asia.

The European part of Russia includes the entire territory lying west of the Urals (about 23% of the entire area of ​​the country); The Asian part of Russia accounts for over 75% of the area. However, almost 80% of Russia's population is concentrated in its European part (including the entire Urals).

Stella "Asia"

The main part of the Russian territory is located between 70° N. w. and 50° N. sh.; about 20% of the territory lies beyond the Arctic Circle.

The total length of the borders of the Russian Federation is 60,932.8 km, of which 38,807.5 km are sea borders and 22,125.3 km are land borders. Greatest length land border The Russian Federation has with, Mongolia and. Maritime borders exist with Japan and.

Extreme northern point country - 81°51" N - located on Cape Fligeli (Rudolph Island as part of the archipelago), and on the mainland - 77°43" N. w. - on Cape Chelyuskin (peninsula). Extreme southern point- 41°10" N – located 3 kilometers east of Mount Ragdan of the Main Caucasus Range. The extreme eastern point of the country is 169°02" W. - is located on Ratmanov Island in the Bering Strait, and on the mainland -169°40" W - on Cape Dezhnev (Chukchi Peninsula). The westernmost point is -19°38" E. d. - located in the Kaliningrad region on the border with Poland. The length of Russia's territory from west to east is 9 thousand km, and from north to south - 4 thousand km.

There are 11 within Russia.

The modern borders of the Russian Federation were formed over a long period of time historical period. Some of them were inherited from the Russian Empire (the entire border with, the border with China and along most of their length). The current maritime border between Russia and the United States was also formed in the century before last, when the tsarist government sold Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to the United States in 1867. The border with Mongolia was finally agreed upon after its separation from China already in Soviet time, although in fact it took shape earlier.

A significant part of the current Russian borders was established as a result of the Second World War.

New ones, amounting to about 12 thousand km, arose as a result of the collapse of the USSR in 1991. The new independent states retained the borders of the former union republics. Russian diplomacy has done a great deal of work to formalize the new borders in accordance with international law. In most cases, experts managed to resolve controversial issues and avoid their politicization.

Russian borders are extremely diverse in morphology. Some of them pass along natural boundaries - large bodies of water, mountain ranges and watersheds. The total length of the country's river borders is 7.3 thousand km, and the lake borders are about 500 km. In the Caucasus, the border between Russia and and mainly runs along the Main Range, and the border with Kazakhstan partially runs along the Tigiretsky, Koksu, and Katunsky ridges.

The degree of development of the border strip depends on the morphological properties of the border and, in particular, on the degree of its coincidence with natural boundaries, which in turn largely determines the prerequisites for cross-border cooperation. The border territories of the Republic of North Ossetia - Alania, the Amur Region and the Jewish Autonomous Region are distinguished by a high degree of economic and demographic development, the south of which continues the main zone of Russian settlement and is distinguished by more favorable natural conditions. The population density is relatively high in the borderlands of the Orenburg region, as well as in such old developed areas as in the Belgorod, Bryansk and Pskov regions and even in some mountainous regions - in the Altai Republic and the Karachay-Cherkess Republic. On the contrary, the steppe regions of a number of regions bordering Kazakhstan and some mountainous regions in the North Caucasus are sparsely populated.

On the border itself or very close to it there are such large cities as Sochi (331.0 thousand inhabitants), Orsk (246.1 thousand inhabitants), Blagoveshchensk (214.3 thousand inhabitants), Novotroitsk (110.6 thousand . residents) and others.

The geographical and geopolitical position of Russia is closely connected with its territorial structure and predetermines many features of settlement and economy. It is distinguished by its transcontinental nature (the territory of the country covers part of Europe and Asia) and interoceanic extension (Russia directly accesses three oceans - the basin, the Pacific and the Arctic oceans.

Most of the sea coast falls on the Northern Seas, which are extremely difficult for navigation and remote from populated areas. 8–10% of Russian citizens live directly by the sea - three times less than the average on the planet. However, Russia has begun to actively restore its merchant fleet, which ranks 13th in the world in terms of tonnage.

The most accessible regional seas of the Arctic, Atlantic and each have 5–6 regions, with the northern and Far Eastern ones occupying 10–11% of the country’s territory with 2–3% of the population and gross domestic product, and the western ones - 1.6%, respectively, 11. 6% and 9.4%. The main ports of Russia are located in them.

Russia is the most northern state. It accounts for half of the world's northern regions, with an area of ​​11 million km2, or 64% of the country's territory. The population density of the North is only 1 person. per km2, but in total about 10 million people live there. Russia has the most northern city world with a population of over 1 million people. () and the northernmost city in the world with a population of more than 100 thousand (Norilsk). Overall northern geographical position means large costs for heating and lighting, the need to build durable and protected from adverse natural factors industrial premises. Permafrost (often in combination with) increases the cost of any construction, spreading over 60% of the territory of Russia.

Natural and climatic conditions are one of the reasons for the geographical asymmetry of the country: the eastern part of the countries is more mountainous, the climate there is more severe: St. Petersburg and lie on the same latitude, but frosts on the shores of the Baltic last 4.5 months, and on the Sea of ​​Okhotsk - 7, average January temperatures are –8° and –20°С, respectively.

The share of the regions of the European part of Russia, including the Urals, in the entire territory of Russia is 1/4. 4/5 of the country's inhabitants live in these areas, and the vast majority of economic potential is concentrated here.

One of the consequences of the vastness of Russian spaces is the sparseness of the city network. The average distance between them in the populated area of ​​the European part of Russia is 45–75 km, beyond - about 250 km. Therefore, it is so important for Russia to have highly developed, cheap and efficient transport that ensures high mobility of the population. In a rarefied space, a special effect is achieved by the use of the concept of a settlement framework, based on the predominant development of cities located along transport axes - polyhighways. This saves transport costs and time spent moving between cities.

Due to the sparse population and geographical asymmetry, the deep inland geography of production in Russia, the transport intensity of the economy is high, i.e. the ratio of freight turnover of all types of mainline transport to the gross domestic product. At the beginning of this decade, it was 2.5–3 tkm per dollar of production, while in China, Australia, and Canada it was 0.7–1; in the USA - 0.55; in Europe - even 0.2–0.4 tkm. High energy intensity is functionally associated with this indicator. Average transportation distance railway- 1330 km, by air- more than 4500.

At the same time, Russia's vast territory means an abundance and diversity of natural resources. Mineral resources constitute the main item of Russian export, providing up to 70% of foreign exchange earnings. In Russia, 20 thousand deposits of almost all types of minerals have been discovered, 37% have been put into operation. An important geopolitical role belongs to fuel and raw materials resources. Russia's share in the world's proven oil reserves is almost 10%, a third (first place in the world - 2.5 times more than in second place), coal - 12%. Russia ranks first in the world in production and.
Especially rich natural resources high latitude areas. The Russian sector of the Arctic includes about a third of its entire area. The Arctic is 90% of the recoverable hydrocarbon resources of the entire continental shelf of Russia, 80% of all-Russian proven gas reserves, deposits of many other minerals - apatites, nickel and copper, tungsten, platinum group metals, tin, gold, manganese, chromite and titanium ores. In the Arctic zone there are companies that belong to the world giants - Gazprom, Norilsk, oil producing companies. About 11% of Russia's national income and 22% of exports are produced here (with 1% of the population). The Northern sea ​​route- a transcontinental highway integrating the economic complex of the Far North and connecting the Far Eastern and Western regions of Russia.

The collapse of the USSR led to the formation of an enclave - the Kaliningrad region, now surrounded by EU countries - Poland and. Communications with it and maintaining the competitiveness of the region’s economy are an important geopolitical problem for Russia.

Russia maintains international relations with many in various fields (politics, economics, culture, healthcare, sports, etc.), as well as with various international organizations.

After the creation of the Commonwealth Independent States- (end of 1991) the situation in Russia changed dramatically. Now it is firmly gaining the position of an equal partnership.

The priority direction of Russian foreign policy is the development of relations with the CIS countries. Russia continues to cooperate with organizations in which it is the legal successor of the USSR: UN (United Nations), OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe), CE (Council of Europe), EU (), APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Community), ASEAN (Association of Nations South-East Asia), OAU (Organization of African Unity), etc.

Russia views international economic organizations as one of the forms of cooperation between states. Russia joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF), became a member of the World Bank Group formed by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), participates in the activities of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), and cooperates with the International Energy Agency. As the legal successor of the USSR, Russia cooperates with the International Labor Organization (ILO). Russia has observer status in the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Russia - a state located on two continents, in Eastern Europe and northern Asia. Largest state world - 17,125,422 sq/km or 1/9 of the entire land area of ​​the Earth, which is twice as much as Canada, which ranks second.

Russia borders on 19 countries(the largest figure in the world), of which by land with the following countries: Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania - in the northwest, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine - in the west, Abkhazia, Georgia, South Ossetia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan - in the south, China, Mongolia, North Korea- in the southeast; and by sea with Turkey - in the southwest, with Japan and the USA - in the east. In addition, the Kaliningrad region, a Russian enclave on the Baltic Sea coast, borders Poland and Lithuania on the eastern side.
belong to Russia also islands New Earth, Severnaya Zemlya, Vaigach, Franz Josef Land archipelago, New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island in the Arctic Ocean in the north, Kurile Islands(parts of which are still disputed by Japan) and the island of Sakhalin in the Pacific Ocean to the east.
In the east Russia is washed Japanese, Okhotsk and Bering seas and the Bering Strait; in the north - by the Laptev and White Seas, Barents, Kara, Chukotka and East Siberian seas; in the west - the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Finland; in the south - the Black, Azov and Caspian seas.

After the collapse of the USSR at the end of 1991 the Russian Federation was recognized by the international community as a republic federal structure and accepted into the UN Security Council and a number of other international organizations. The independence of the Russian Federation was declared on August 24, 1991. The head of state is the President (elected once every 6 years), executive power belongs to the government headed by the Prime Minister (appointed by Parliament upon nomination by the President).
The State Duma and the Federation Council form a bicameral Parliament.
Lower House State Duma - 450 deputies, elections are held once every 5 years.
Upper House Federation Council - 170 senators appointed by regional parliaments.
Part The Russian Federation includes 22 republics, one autonomous region (Jewish), 4 autonomous districts, 9 territories and 46 regions.
Moscow, St. Petersburg and Sevastopol have direct federal subordination and are cities of federal significance. In total, as of 2015, there are 85 constituent entities in the Russian Federation.

From a demographic point of view in the Russian Federation, the most significant event in March 2014 was the actual reunification Crimean peninsula with the territory of the Russian state.

Capital of Russia- Moscow. The largest city Russia with a population of 12,197,596 people.
Heart of Russia- Moscow Kremlin.
In total, there are 15 million-plus cities in Russia, the largest cities with a population of over 1 million people. These are Moscow, St. Petersburg (more than 5 million people); Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg (more than 1.5 million people); Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Samara, Chelyabinsk, Omsk, Rostov-on-Don, Ufa, Krasnoyarsk, Perm, Volgograd, Voronezh.

Total Russia covers11 time zones with a difference from +2 to +12 hours relative to Greenwich.

Population- 146,293,111 people (as of 2014 od). Most of the inhabitants of Russia (about 80%) live in the European part (Central, Southern, North Caucasian, Northwestern, Volga, Ural federal districts). The remaining 20% ​​is in the Asian part of Russia (Siberian, Far Eastern districts). The majority of the population lives in cities - 75%.
Live in Russia representatives of more than 200 nationalities. The largest ethnic group - Russians - makes up 80% of the country's population. Tatars - 4%, Ukrainians - 3%, Chuvash, Bashkirs, Belarusians, Mordovians, Chechens, Armenians, Avars and other nationalities - 1% or less.
Peoples of Russia speak more than 100 languages ​​and dialects. Russian is the native language of approximately 130 million citizens (92% of the Russian population). He is also state language Russian Federation. Also, Ukrainian, Tatar, Armenian and other languages ​​are common.
Christians live in Russia(mainly Orthodox), Muslims, Buddhists (mainly in Buryatia, Kalmykia and Tuva - Siberia), Jews, pagans and representatives of other religious faiths. The share of Russian citizens who are Orthodox Christians is 70% of all residents of the country. The number of Muslims is 15% of the population. Convinced atheists make up 6% of the population.
State currency- Russian ruble (~60 RUB = 1 USD).

Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources, large reserves a variety of mineral resources, the most important of which are oil, gas, coal, gold and other strategic minerals. Russia ranks first in the world in terms of forest area, which occupy 45% of the country's territory, and has approximately 1/5 of the world's timber reserves. Also, Russia has the largest number of lakes, containing about a quarter of the world's unfrozen reserves. fresh water.
Despite the vastness of the territory, a relatively small part of the land is used in agriculture - arable land occupies only 8% of the country's territory. A significant part of the territory falls on the permafrost zone.

About 3/4 of the territory The countries are made up of plains. In the west lies the East European Plain - one of the largest plains in the world, on which almost the entire European part of Russia is located. In the south of the country there are northern slopes Caucasus Mountains where is the most high point countries and Europe - Mount Elbrus (5.642 meters). In the east the plain is limited by low old Ural mountains altitude up to 2,000 meters. And to the east of the Urals lies the West Siberian Plain with vast wetlands, bordered in the southeast Altai mountains altitude up to 4,500 meters. Closer to the Pacific coast in the east is the region of mountain ranges and plateaus of Northeast Asia. Thus, the eastern part of the country, with the exception of the valleys of large rivers, is a mountainous area. There are 120 volcanoes on the Kamchatka Peninsula, 23 of which are active. The tallest of them is Klyuchevskaya Sopka height 4.750 meters. Largest rivers countries - Volga, Northern Dvina, Don, Irtysh, Ob, Angara, Yenisei, Lena, Amur. Largest lakes: Baikal (in the southeast) - the deepest and largest in volume in the world, Ladoga, Lake Onega(in the north-east).

Most of the country located within moderate climate zone. The extreme regions of the north and northern islands belong to the Arctic zone, and some southern areas are close to the subtropics. The climate throughout almost the entire country is continental, which is especially evident in the large range of seasonal temperatures and scarcity of precipitation. In most parts of the territory, winter is long. Particularly severe frosts are observed in Eastern Yakutia (-45..-50 degrees). In the European part of Russia, winter temperatures range from 0 to -10 degrees. In summer, average temperatures are +15..+25 degrees. In the warm half of the year - from May to October - the bulk of precipitation falls.
Differences in climate zones characterizes the diversity of natural areas. IN arctic deserts Mosses, polar poppies, and buttercups grow in the Far North; in the tundra, dwarf birch, willow, and alder are added to these species. Spruce, fir, cedar, and larch are typical for the taiga. To the south and west begins a zone of broad-leaved forests of oak, maple, linden, and hornbeam. Also, in the country you can find many rare species: Mongolian oak, Manchurian maple, elm, walnut. In the forest-steppe and steppe parts of the country there are oak forests, herbs, and cereals. The Black Sea subtropics are dominated by forests of fluffy oak, junipers, boxwood, and black alder. On the coast there are eucalyptus and palm trees.
Rich and diverse fauna countries. In the Arctic and tundra zones: arctic fox, reindeer, polar hare, seals, walruses, polar bear. The taiga is inhabited by bear, lynx, wapiti, wolverine, elk, sable, ermine, chipmunk, and squirrel; Capercaillie, hazel grouse, black grouse, woodpecker, and nutcracker nest. In addition, the taiga is characterized by the presence huge amount mosquitoes The deciduous forests are home to wild boar, deer, mink, numerous birds, and lizards. In forests Far East- rare Ussuri tigers, bears, deer. Among the animals of the steppe zone, small rodents predominate, with many saigas, badgers, foxes, and large steppe birds (bustard, crane, little bustard). In the desert there are gazelles, jackals, sand cats, and numerous rodents. Lots of reptiles and turtles. IN Caucasus region inhabited by mountain goats, Caucasian deer, porcupines, leopards, hyenas, bears, and also a large number of reptiles.