Sea route to India. The first Russian traveler: why he went to India due to many troubles The year of the opening of the sea route to India
The fabulous riches of the East have long attracted Europeans. Trade in eastern, in particular Indian, goods brought enormous profits, although the greatest difficulties and dangers awaited the merchants on the long journey.
Reasons for searching for a sea route to India
In the middle of the 13th century, everything began to change. First, the Mongols conquered Baghdad, a rich city that was a major transit point on the Great Silk Road. Trade was not a priority for them, so the route of goods from China and India to Europe has become more complicated. Following Baghdad, the Arab caliphate also fell, but the main supplies of eastern goods to the west passed through its territory in Mesopotamia. And finally, in 1291, the Europeans lost the city of Saint-Jean d'Acre - their last bastion in the East, which somehow supported the dying trade. From that moment on, European trade with India and China almost completely ceased. Now it was completely managed by Arab traders, who received fabulous dividends from this.
First try
It was necessary to look for another route by sea. However, the Europeans did not know him. Nevertheless, immediately after the loss of Saint-Jean d'Acre, an expedition to India was prepared from Genoa. Sources of that time report about the Vivaldi brothers, who went to sea in two galleys equipped with food supplies, water and other necessary things. They sent their ships to Moroccan Ceuta in order to further sail into the ocean, find Indian countries and buy profitable goods there. Whether they reached India - there is no reliable information about this. It is only known that after 1300 nautical maps appeared, which showed the outlines of the African continent quite accurately. This suggests that the Vivaldi brothers at least managed to bypass Africa from the south.
Portuguese relay
The next attempt was made 150 years later thanks to the advent of new maritime technologies and ships. This time it's Venetian Alvise Cadamosto in 1455 he reached and was able to explore the mouth of the Gambia River. After him, the initiative passed to the Portuguese, who very actively began to move south along the African coast. 30 years after Cadamosto Diogo Cannes was able to go further than that. In 1484-1485 he reached the shores of South-West Africa. Literally moved towards his back Bartolomeo Dias, who in 1488 reached the extreme southern point of the African continent, which he named the Cape of Storms. True, King Henry the Navigator did not agree with him and renamed it the Cape of Good Hope. Dias rounded the cape and proved that there was a road to the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic. However, a severe storm and the ensuing mutiny of the crew forced him to turn back.
But the experience gained by Bartolomeo Dias was not lost. It was used when building ships for the next expedition and laying out the route. The ships were built with a special design, since Dias considered traditional caravels unsuitable for such serious voyages.
To help future sailors to India Pedro da Covilha was sent overland, fluent in Arabic, with the task of collecting as much information as possible about the seaports of East Africa and India. The traveler coped with his task brilliantly. We should not forget that in the great geographical race, Portugal’s eternal rival, Spain, through the mouth of Christopher Columbus, announced the opening of the western route to India. But who actually discovered the sea route to India?
Expedition of Vasco da Gama
By the summer of 1497, a fleet of 4 ships was completely ready for a long-distance expedition to India. King Manuel I, who ascended the Portuguese throne, personally appointed commander Vasco da Gama. This intelligent and competent man, experienced in palace intrigues, could not have been more successfully suited to the role of a navigator explorer. Bartolomeo Dias, who from the very beginning supervised the preparation of the new expedition, led the preparations for Vasco da Gama's voyage until the departure.
Finally, on July 8, 1497, the last preparations were completed, and all four of Vasco da Gama's ships set sail. On board were 170 of the best Portuguese sailors, some of whom had sailed with Dias. The most modern navigation instruments were installed on sea vessels and the most accurate maps were taken. Bartolomeo Dias himself accompanied the flotilla at the initial stage.
A week later, the ships reached the Canaries, from where they turned towards the Cape Verde Islands. There Dias went ashore, and the expedition set off independently. In order to avoid the calm strip in the Gulf of Guinea, the ships turned west and, making a giant loop, returned to their route, turning towards South Africa.
Vasco da Gama (1469-1524)
Portuguese navigator. In 1497-1499. sailed from Lisbon to India, circumnavigating Africa, and back, pioneering the sea route from Europe to South Asia.
In 1524 he was appointed viceroy of India. Died in India during his third voyage. His ashes were sent to Portugal in 1538.
Along the African continent
The three remaining ships of the expedition (one ship sank near the Cape of Good Hope) had already celebrated Christmas, moving north along the east coast of Africa. The navigation was difficult: the oncoming southwest current interfered. However, having traveled 2,700 km, on March 2 the ships arrived in Mozambique. Unfortunately, although the Portuguese spared no expense in equipping the expedition, they miscalculated the quality of their goods and gifts. Commander da Gama’s complete lack of diplomatic talent also played a bad role. Trying to improve relations with the Sultan ruling in Mozambique, the Portuguese only ruined relations with him with their inexpensive gifts. The expedition, as they say, had to move on in its own interests in the hope of a better reception.
Having traveled another 1300 km, the ships got to Mombassa, but things didn’t go well there either. And only in the next port of Malindi the reception was better. The local ruler even gave Vasco da Gama his best navigator, Ahmed ibn Majid, who led the expedition to its destination.
1498 - discovery of India!
May 20, 1498 ships moored at the port of Calicut. Here, on the Malabar coast of India, was the center of the spice trade. The Portuguese's relationship with the local prince and Muslim traders, unfortunately, did not work out, and then completely deteriorated so much that the ships were unable to adequately prepare for the return journey. After a brutal scandal that ended in the taking of hostages on both sides, the expedition, without even waiting for a fair wind, left the port.
Hard road home
The road back to Malindi across the Arabian Sea was extremely difficult. The ships traveled 3,700 km for 3 whole months, during which 30 people died of scurvy. The remaining sailors were saved only by the kindness of the Sultan of Malindi, who supplied the ships with oranges and fresh meat. Here they had to burn the ship "San Rafael" due to poor condition and lack of crew. Its crew members were distributed among the remaining ships.
Then things got better, and in the second half of March the ships of the expedition turned north along the western coast of Africa. But even from here it took them six months to sail to their native Portugal. Only on September 18, 1499, having traveled 38,600 km across the seas, the very battered ships returned to Lisbon. To confirm the correctness of the path, a gift was brought to the king - a golden idol weighing 27 kilograms, whose eyes were emerald, and a ruby the size of a walnut sparkled on its chest. The triumph of King Manuel I and Vasco da Gama was complete. And although less than a third of the sailors from the ship’s crews were able to return to their homeland, they were able to open up gigantic opportunities for their country, which it very soon took advantage of.
Vasco da Gama's discovery of the sea route to India determined the further course of history. After him, a rapid series of events began that changed the world. The very next year, a whole squadron of 13 ships under the leadership of Admiral Cabral set off for India. Less than half a century has passed since the campaign of Vasco da Gama, and Portugal was able to reach Japan, thereby founding a gigantic empire. But, although later this sea route became literally commonplace, the feat of medieval sailors was that they were the first.
In the modern world, some geographical objects are named after the navigator Vasco da Gama:
- The longest bridge in Europe over the Tagus River in Lisbon;
- A city in India in the state of Goa, approximately 5 km from Dabolim Airport;
- A large impact crater on the visible side of the Moon.
Contacts between Asian countries and Russia have existed for a long time. But almost nothing is known about merchants or travelers who reached the fabulous countries of the East until the 15th century. The first Russian person who not only reached India, but also described his stay in other countries (the famous “Walk across the Three Seas”) was Afanasy Nikitin.
Why did you go?
Afanasy Nikitin was a Tver merchant. In the second half of the 15th century, Tver flourished and was a trading center: many merchants from different countries flocked here. These traders spread news of unprecedented and richest eastern countries. Deciding to try his luck, Afanasy Nikitin in the mid-1460s. went on a trade expedition to the Caucasian principality of Shirvan.
Which countries did you visit?
In the Astrakhan region, a Russian merchant and his companions were robbed by the army of Khan Kasim. They had no property left, and each one went where his “eyes took him.” Nikitin himself did not turn home, but went further: to the Caucasus (Derbent, Baku), then he crossed the Caspian Sea and wandered to the Persian countries, and then went to India. Feeling homesick, he set off on his way back. However, he was not destined to reach his native Tver. In 1475 he died in the Smolensk region.
Afanasy Nikitin's journey to India and back
Why did he go so far
Despite the fact that Nikitin left behind detailed notes about his walk, many things remain unclear. For example, why, after the attack by Khan Kasim, did he not want to return home, like some other merchants, but continued on his way? And why did he decide to go all the way to India?
Some researchers note that the reason is very simple: having lost almost all of his belongings, Nikitin was afraid that at home he would have fallen into debt. And returning empty-handed would be a shame. Therefore, he decided to go further through the trading cities, reselling goods. Each time I decided to go a little further, to get to another market, to try my luck there. However, this journey did not bring him any trading success. His only operation was the sale of a stallion - and that went to his loss. And throughout all his notes, the merchant laments that Muslim traders deceived him. The fact is that, in his opinion, there were no special goods in the eastern countries, only pepper and paint. But there are a lot of robbers and high duties.
Another question, why Afanasy Nikitin went exactly this way, also receives a very simple answer. Being a cautious merchant, he goes only along the cities of the Volga trade route that connected Russia with the southern countries. And having reached Iran, he followed the then famous trade route to India.
Why is his journey so unusual?
What distinguished Nikitin's travels from others was the duration of his trade route. He moved from one shopping center to another and, as a result, reached places that had not been visited by Russian merchants before.
Monument to Afanasy Nikitin in Tver And since the Russian merchant had no final destination, he traveled slowly, peering at other cultures and peoples. Afanasy Nikitin wrote down his vivid and accurate observations (though it is not entirely clear when: during travel or on the way back) and became the first of all Russians to leave impressions about the cultural characteristics, morals, and political systems of other countries. His notes are the first example of this kind of writing. He marveled at the black people, their “half-naked” outfits, and complained that many constantly pregnant women walked around without covering their “shame.” And besides, the food the foreigners have is bad: they don’t eat any meat, but only rice, various herbs, butter and milk. He was also surprised by the existence of as many as 82 religions among Indians! Afanasy Nikitin’s descriptions are so interesting that using his materials one can reconstruct the history of the Bahmanid state.
Did Afanasy Nikitin become an apostate?
Another mystery in the notes of Afanasy Nikitin - did he become an apostate (a grave sin at that time) and converted to Islam during the expedition? The fact is that in “Walking” there is a moment when Muslims ordered a Russian merchant, under threat of death and the kidnapping of his only stallion (which he was going to sell), to convert to Islam. A Russian merchant wrote that he was saved by a passer-by, and he remained true to his faith. However, further narration casts doubt on his words (we are, of course, talking about the original text). He began to often write in the “Besermian” language (the merchant learned Arabic, Persian, and Turkic languages), praised Allah, inserted Islamic prayers, and then generally wrote that his faith had perished, and he observed Muslim fasts.
Some researchers are confident that the Russian merchant converted to Islam. However, others note (for example, Lurie) that Afanasy Nikitin only pretended to have converted to Islam, and with foreign words tried to hide some stories that would bring him trouble in Rus'.
However, only the Russian merchant himself could answer this question. In addition, nothing can still be said for sure about the merchant’s social status or his education. That is why Afanasy Nikitin, the first Russian person to cross the three seas, is often called a “mysterious figure.”
General history. History of modern times. 7th grade Burin Sergey Nikolaevich
§ 1. Sea route to India: searches and finds
Causes of the Great Geographical Discoveries
People have traveled and made geographical discoveries at all times, but the era of Great Geographical Discoveries is usually called a very specific historical period - from the end of the 15th to the middle of the 17th century. And this is fair: in no other time have so many geographical discoveries been made on such a scale, and never have they had such exceptional significance for the destinies of the whole world, and primarily for Europe. Why did the era of discoveries come exactly then?
Map of the 15th century reflects the ideas of the ancient scientist Ptolemy, who believed that the Atlantic and Indian oceans are not connected to each other, and therefore there is no sea route from Europe to India.
During the Middle Ages, people rarely traveled and did not know much about distant lands. A few exceptions (for example, the discoveries of the Vikings) remained unknown in other countries, and for Scandinavia itself they were of little importance. After all, in those days society did not feel the need to discover new lands.
Ideas of Middle Ages people about the inhabitants of distant lands
In the XIV–XV centuries. Europe entered a new era: cities grew, crafts and trade developed. Enterprising people appeared for whom money became the visible embodiment of success. Species were needed more and more, meanwhile in Europe there was a catastrophic shortage of it, because gold and silver had been exported to the East for centuries in exchange for fine fabrics, jewelry, spices and incense.
Madonna of the Seafarers. Artist A. Fernandez
Eastern goods entered Europe along the Silk Road and through the Arabian and Red Seas. Then, in the Mediterranean ports, the riches of the East were acquired by merchants from Venice and Genoa, who transported them throughout Europe. On the way to the consumer, the product changed hands many times. As a result, the intermediaries became rich, and the price increased so much that, say, the spices familiar to us, which just then became fashionable in Europe, became a luxury item. A bag of pepper or cloves cost a fortune.
As a result of the Ottoman conquests, well-known trade routes were temporarily closed, and prices for eastern goods jumped sharply. Therefore, the question inevitably had to arise: is there another way to the riches of the East? The best way is by sea, because this is how you can establish direct connections, trade without intermediaries and not depend on land conflicts and wars.
By the 15th century Significant advances were made in various fields of science and technology, which made it possible to make long sea voyages. Caravels appeared - fast and maneuverable ships with sailing rigs convenient for ocean voyages, which could move in the desired direction in almost any wind. The astrolabe, other instruments and various astronomical tables made it possible to quite accurately determine the geographical coordinates of a place. Sailors learned to use a compass and make maps.
Portuguese on their way to India
The era of great geographical discoveries began with the travels of sailors from the countries of the Iberian Peninsula - Portugal and Spain. These states were not among the most developed, but their geographical position was favorable for voyages across the Atlantic. Both countries had convenient harbors, fast ships, experienced captains and sailors. And when, first in Portugal, and later in Spain, the Reconquista ended (Spanish and port. Reconquista- reconquest), or the liberation of the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors, the energy of those who had previously fought the Muslims needed a new outlet. Many nobles were left without a livelihood, since the main source of their income was the war. They needed new campaigns of conquest.
In 1415, the Portuguese captured Seu?tu, a port on the northern coast of Africa. There they learned about the caravan routes that led across the Sahara to the south. From there they brought gold, ivory and black slaves to the Mediterranean. But the sands of the Sahara were impassable for the Portuguese army, and then one of the sons of the Portuguese king, Prince Enrique (1394–1460), was carried away by the idea of reaching the rich southern countries by sea, moving along the western coast of Africa. He became the organizer of the first Portuguese long voyages and went down in history as Enrique the Navigator, although he did not take personal part in the expeditions. With his considerable income, he purchased geographical maps and navigation instruments, equipped caravels, and invited scientists and sailors to his service.
The globe of the German scientist Martin Behaim is the oldest surviving one. 1492
Expeditions organized by order of the prince discovered previously unknown islands in the Atlantic: Madeira, Azores, Cape Verde. Slowly, overcoming age-old superstitions and fear of the unknown, the Portuguese moved south. Soon they reached that part of Africa where blacks lived and began trade with them. At first, in exchange for cheap fabrics and trinkets, Europeans acquired gold and ivory, and then began to capture blacks and enslave them, showing inhuman cruelty. Local residents, fleeing, fled away from the coast, and the Portuguese, in search of prey, moved further and further south.
In 1488, an expedition led by Bartholomew Diash reached the southern tip of Africa. However, the rebellion of the crew, exhausted by the long voyage, forced Dias to turn back. Already on the way back, he discovered a peninsula, called the Cape of Good Hope - the hope that the sea route to India would soon be built.
Vasco da Gama
The century-long efforts of Portuguese sailors ended in 1497–1499. swimming Va?sko da Ga?my. Having overcome all difficulties and using the help of the famous Arab pilot Ahmad ibn Majida on the final leg of the journey, Vasco da Gama reached the western coast of India in 1498, for the first time establishing a sea route from Europe to the countries of the East. From that time on, for almost four centuries, trading ships from Europe to the countries of South and East Asia sailed mainly around Africa.
When it became known that Vasco da Gama had paved the sea route to India, people in Venice said that they had not heard such bad news for a long time. Why?
In India, the Portuguese learned that some spices were brought there from even more distant countries, and continued their search. In subsequent years, they reached the Malaka Peninsula and the Spice Islands (Moluka Islands), China and Japan. As a result, the production turned out to be so great that the search for new lands lost all meaning for the Portuguese and was stopped.
Chinese porcelain was highly valued in Europe
Discovery of America by Columbus
When the Portuguese had not yet reached the southern tip of Africa, there was a man who proposed a different direction in searching for a route to the countries of the East. A sailor from the Italian city of Genoa, Christopher Columb (1451–1506), relying on the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth, argued that China and India could be reached by sailing from Europe to the west. The theoretical possibility of such a voyage was obvious to many educated people at that time, but the practical implementation of the idea raised doubts among scientists.
Christopher Columbus. Artist S. del Piombo
For many years, Columbus tried in vain to convince the kings of Portugal, England, and France that he was right. It was only in Spain, after seven years of hesitation, that King Ferdinando and Queen Isabella agreed to equip an expedition that was supposed to cross the Atlantic in order to get ahead of the Portuguese, who were also looking for a sea route to India.
Three ships of Columbus with a crew of 90 people sailed from the Spanish harbor of Palos, made a stop in the Canary Islands and a month later, on October 12, 1492, they saw land. These were the Bahamas, located off the coast of America. Believing that he had reached the countries of the East and that India was very close, Columbus called the local inhabitants Indians, and this name stuck with them. The continent itself was for a long time called India or the West Indies, i.e. Western India (to distinguish it from India proper, also called East Indies - East India).
Columbus was going to continue his search for the richest countries of the East, but after the crash of the flagship Santa Maria, he had to urgently return to Spain. Later, he made three more voyages overseas, during which almost all of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as significant sections of the coast of an unknown continent, were discovered. However, contrary to hopes, Columbus failed to discover significant wealth in the new lands. Disappointed Fernando and Isabella deprived the great navigator of many of the incomes and privileges previously granted to him. Forgotten by everyone, Columbus died in 1506, until the end of his days he was convinced that he had paved a new route to the countries of the East.
Great geographical discoveries
Find on the map all directions for searching the sea route from Europe to the countries of the East. Which of them were trade routes then, and which were not? Why?
However, not everyone thought so. The first person to publicly declare that the lands discovered by Columbus were not Asia, but a new, previously unknown part of the world, or the New World (as opposed to the Old World - Europe, Asia and Africa), was the Florentine navigator and astronomer Amer. Vespu ?chchi. His letters with colorful descriptions of his travels to the shores of Brazil became so popular in Europe that soon a new part of the world was named America in his honor.
Compass in ivory case
First circumnavigation of the world
The colossal riches of the New World were not immediately discovered, and at first America seemed only an insurmountable obstacle on the Western path to the countries of the East. In vain did the navigators search for a strait that would lead from the Atlantic Ocean to the shores of China and India. The continuous line of coastline stretched to the north and south for many thousands of kilometers.
The natives warmly welcome Christopher Columbus. Engraving by T. de Bry
In 1513, a detachment of Spaniards led by Vasco Nunes de Balbo crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached another “sea”. The discoverer called it the “South Sea”. But is there a strait connecting the Atlantic to the “South Sea”?
The Portuguese navigator, who was in the service of the Spanish king, Fern Magellan, managed to answer this question. In 1519, a flotilla of five ships led by him left the Spanish harbor and headed west. Magellan wanted to get ahead of the Portuguese on the way to the Spice Islands, who in those same years were looking for a way to them from the Indian Ocean. The sailor's courage and iron will brought him success. After a long search, the strait was found (now it bears the name of Magellan). Then the ships crossed the “South Sea,” which turned out to be the greatest ocean on the planet. It was Magellan who called it Quiet, since the sailors were lucky enough to never get caught in a storm here.
Ferdinand Magellan
In 1521, the flotilla approached the islands, later named the Philippines (in honor of the Spanish Prince Philip, the future King Philip II). Here, in a skirmish with local residents, Magellan died. After his death, the Spaniards reached their goal - the Moluccas. And then the ship with the symbolic name “Victoria” (“Victory”) crossed the Indian and Atlantic oceans and returned to Spain in 1522, completing the first circumnavigation in history (1519–1522). The cargo of overseas spices more than paid for all the expenses of the expedition. However, out of 265 crew members, only 18 starved sailors returned to their homeland.
Magellan carried out the plan of Christopher Columbus, paving the western route to the countries of the East. A trip around the world finally proved that the Earth is spherical and allowed us to get an idea of its true size.
New searches, new discoveries
The discoveries made by the sailors intensified the rivalry between European countries for control of new lands and trade routes. Immediately after the return of Christopher Columbus from his first voyage, Portugal laid claim to those areas of the Atlantic where discoveries were made. After difficult negotiations in the city of Tordesiállas in 1494, an agreement was concluded on the delimitation of spheres of influence (it is sometimes called the first division of the world). The dividing line crossed the Atlantic from pole to pole. The territories to the west of it were considered the zone of influence of Spain, to the east - of Portugal. However, other countries did not want to recognize this treaty.
In 1497, the Italian Giovanni Cabotto, who was in the English service (in England he was called John Cabot), crossed the North Atlantic and reached North America, mistaking it for Northeast Asia. Thus, he began the search for a northwestern route to the countries of the East. But neither gold nor spices were found here, and England abandoned further searches in this direction for a long time.
Determination of latitude. Artist J. de Vaux
Many believed that America could be circumnavigated from the north in an easier way than from the south, through the Strait of Magellan. So, the Frenchman Jacques Cartier? mistakenly mistook the Gulf and the St. Lawrence River that he discovered for the northwest passage to the Pacific Ocean. The Indians in those parts called their villages “kanata” (hence the modern name of the North American country Canada).
At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. The British returned to the search for the northwest passage. Through the heroic efforts of captains Frobisher, Huzon, Baffin and others, a significant part of the coast of North America was discovered, but in the 17th century. the search for the northwest passage was considered pointless and abandoned.
In the second half of the 16th century. The British and Dutch were looking for a way to the countries of the Far East, trying to go around Asia from the north (northeast passage). In the process of these searches, the British came to Russia, where Ivan the Terrible then ruled, and began trade with it, and the Dutchman Willem Barents reached Novaya Zemlya. But a further journey to the east was impossible for sailing ships. The search was stopped both here and in the 17th century. It was not Western European navigators, but Russian explorers who became famous for their discoveries in northern Asia.
Which countries played a leading role in the search for northwestern and northeastern routes to the countries of the East? Why wasn't it Spain or Portugal?
The Dutch played a major role in the discovery of the fifth part of the world - Australia. At the end of the 16th century. they captured vast possessions in Asia from Portugal, including the Spice Islands. While making trading voyages in the Indian Ocean, the Dutch from time to time found themselves off the coast of some large land. It was assumed that this was part of the unknown “Southland” - a giant continent supposedly balancing the landmass of the Northern Hemisphere. And only two voyages of A?bel Ta?sman in 1642–1644. showed that the lands discovered by the Dutch are a separate part of the world, later called Australia.
Let's sum it up
Great geographical discoveries were a natural consequence of the historical development of Europe at the end of the Middle Ages. The search for all possible options for the sea route from Europe to the countries of the East lasted 150 years. During these searches, which were crowned with success, important discoveries were made that changed Europeans' ideas about the world.
1492, October 12- Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus.1498 - Vasco da Gama's discovery of the sea route to India.
1519–1522 - Ferdinand Magellan's first circumnavigation of the world.
“Never before or after has geography, cosmography, cartography known such frantic, intoxicating, victorious rates of development as in these fifty years, when, for the first time since people live, breathe and think, the form was finally determined and the size of the Earth when humanity first came to know the round planet on which it has been revolving in the Universe for so many millennia.”(Austrian writer Stefan Zweig about the beginning of the Age of Discovery)
1*. What do you see as the reasons for the advent of the Age of Great Geographical Discovery?
2. What would you answer to someone who believes that America was discovered by the Vikings, and not Columbus at all?
3. Why is only one country in America named after Columbus, and not the entire part of the world he discovered?
4*. How do you think the discovery of Australia differed from other important geographical discoveries of that era?
1. Using the materials from the textbook, fill out the table “Geographical discoveries of the 15th–17th centuries.”
2. Find on the map geographical objects (seas, straits, islands, etc.) named in honor of the navigators of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries.
3. Here are two excerpts from a letter sent by Columbus immediately upon his return from his first voyage:
“From only what has been accomplished during this so short journey, their Highnesses can be convinced that I will give them as much gold as they need, if their Highnesses will give me the slightest help; in addition, spices and cotton - as much as their Highnesses deign to command, as well as fragrant resin ... I will also give aloes and slaves, as much as I wish and as many as I am ordered to send, and these slaves will be from among the pagans. I am sure that I also found rhubarb, cinnamon, and thousands of other valuable items.”
“The entire Christian world must be imbued with joy and celebrate great celebrations and solemnly offer a prayer of thanksgiving to the Holy Trinity for the great jubilation that will be experienced on the occasion of the conversion of so many peoples to our holy faith, as well as for the blessings of this world, for not only Spain, but also all Christians will find reinforcement and benefit in them.”
Determine, based on the texts, what attracted Europeans to distant countries. How do you think these passages characterize Columbus? And by the way, why does he specifically note that the slaves will be from among the pagans?
4. Divide into three groups. Each group must prove the greatest historical significance of the discoveries of either X. Columbus, or Vasco da Gama, or F. Magellan. Choose arguments in favor of your point of view. For class discussion, select one person from each group to form an expert panel.
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Whenever we talk about the first Russian travels to India, everyone invariably remembers one name - Afanasy Nikitin. The amazing journey of the Tver merchant, described in the manuscript “Walking across Three Seas,” found by the historian Karamzin at the beginning of the 19th century, really became widely known, and later served as the plot for a feature film. According to Karamzin: “Until now, geographers did not know that the honor of one of the oldest described European journeys to India belongs to Russia of the Ioannian century.” In India “they heard about it before they heard about Portugal, Holland, England. While Vasco da Gama was only thinking about the possibility of finding a way from Africa to Hindustan, our Tverite was already a merchant on the banks of the Malabar and talked with the inhabitants about the tenets of their Faith.”
Of course, the importance of Nikitin’s journey cannot be overestimated. But, as often happens, the story of one person, brightly snatched from the darkness of time, undeservedly leaves other famous names in the shadows.
This essay will tell about intrepid travelers, tireless explorers and true patriots, whose lives were connected with India, but dedicated to Russia and strengthening its ties with the east. Philip Efremov, Gerasim Lebedev, Rafail Danibegashvili, Pyotr Pashino turned out to be almost unknown to their compatriots, not counting orientalists. Despite the fact that small publications were published about each of them back in the 50s, it seems timely to unite the stories of these remarkable people who lived in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries. All of them are united not only by undeserved oblivion in their homeland, but by amazing courage, self-sacrifice, lack of the spirit of careerism and deep love for the fatherland, service of which was the main inspiring force of their wanderings, helping to withstand the most difficult trials, dangers along the way, and often the absence of any support. Undoubtedly, there were other Russian travelers wandering around India, and not only in the 18th-19th centuries, and, perhaps, in the times preceding the travel of Afanasy Nikitin, but not everyone left records of their travels, much less published them. Although in the future, discoveries of other “walkings” and diaries of travelers of the past are not excluded. According to the testimony of Arab travelers, the first Russian-Indian trade contacts date back to the 9th century. The same Arabic sources indicate the similarity of Russian and Indian customs. Perhaps Afanasy Nikitin’s interest in India was caused by his acquaintance with Indian merchants back in Russia.
After the legendary journey of the Tver merchant, Russia repeatedly made attempts to establish strong trade ties with India. Boris Godunov provided special patronage to Indian merchants. In the 17th century, Russian ambassadors were tasked with finding out about land routes to India from Central Asia. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was the first to establish connections with the Great Mughals. In 1646, Russian ambassadors Nikita Syroezhin and Vasily Tushkanov presented Shah Jahan with a letter proposing to establish diplomatic and trade relations. In 1675, ambassador Kasimov was sent to Aurangzeb, but he only managed to get to Kabul. In 1694, an embassy was sent led by Semyon the Little, which stayed in India for five years. During the time of Peter I, Indian merchants were allowed to trade not only in Astrakhan, but also in Moscow. And in 1723 they asked Peter I for permission to travel not only to Moscow, but also to “St. Petersburg and the city of Arkhangelsk and from there to the German states and through Siberia to China.” Since the 17th century, there was a permanent settlement of Indians in Astrakhan, who were actively engaged in trade. Throughout the 18th century, interest in India increased. Translated works about India appeared, introducing Russian readers to its religion and culture, and attempts were made to establish trade contacts through Central Asia and Persia.
Philip Efremov
Philip Efremov was the first European to enter India through Yarkand and Western Tibet, overcoming the most difficult passes of Kara-Korum. He described his journey, which lasted from 1774 to 1782, in the book “Nine-Year Wandering,” which was reprinted three times from 1786 to 1811. In 1893 it was published in the magazine “Russian Antiquity,” but she had to wait for the next reprint for more than half a century until she appeared in Moscow in 1950 on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of the author. Such interest in Efremov’s book at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries is not accidental. It was a time of geographical discovery, when Russians explored the expanses of Siberia, the Pacific Ocean and America. In 1803-1806, the ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva”, under the command of Lisyansky and Kruzenshtern, circumnavigated the world for the first time. Efremov described the mysterious, unexplored lands of Central and Central Asia.
Philip Sergeevich Efremov was born in 1750 in Vyatka into the family of a solicitor (secretary) of a spiritual consistory. At the age of 13 he was sent as a soldier to the Nizhny Novgorod infantry regiment. In 1774 he was sent to serve in the Orenburg steppes, where he was captured, escaped, and was again caught and sold to the Bukhara atalyk (ruler). With the help of sophisticated Bukhara torture, they tried in vain to force Philip Efremov to convert to Islam. Appreciating his courage, the atalyk entrusted Efremov with an army of first 50 and then 100 people, and awarded him land and money for his honest service. As a result, this location of the atalyk made it possible for Efremov to escape.
Upon returning to his homeland, Efremov was appointed to serve in the College of Foreign Affairs as a translator and expert in oriental languages. From 1785 to 1809 he held administrative positions in various cities of Russia, and from 1810 - in Kazan, where in 1811 the third, expanded edition of his “Nine Years’ Wandering” was published.
Efremov's style is distinguished by diary-like brevity. Describing in some detail the inhabitants, customs, agriculture and crafts of the countries he visited, the author is laconic, talking about his own captivity, slavery, escape, and long wanderings through the deserts of Central Asia and the mountains of Kashmir and Tibet. Over the years of his wanderings, Efremov visited Iran, Khorezm, lived in Bukhara, from where he went through Fergana and Kashgaria to Tibet and India. The description of "Tevatu or Tibetu", the beliefs and rituals of the Tibetans, is particularly careful, knowledgeable and respectful. About Kashmir, we find the most general information, mainly indicating the distances from one settlement to another. The description of Hindustan is also brief, with the remark that “in all of India, two peoples are prone to war, the Sikhs and the Marathas (Sikhs and Marathas, V.D.)” and an amusing observation: “The Indians believe in the sun, the month, the stars, fools, and sacrifices to all kinds of vipers.”
Although, unlike Afanasy Nikitin, Efremov does not mention his religious views anywhere, they are revealed between the lines. Thus, with extraordinary respect, he talks about a certain Tibetan saint, “a great priestess, in whom, according to the Tibetans, the holy spirit also dwells.” He was especially glad to see the Greek church in Calcutta, which reminded him of home, and his refusal to accept Islam, despite the threat of death, quite eloquently testifies to the patriotism and religious beliefs of the traveler.
Efremov’s testimonies are especially valuable because they stemmed not only from travel observations, but from live communication with people, since during the years of captivity and wandering he mastered Eastern languages well.
Gerasim Lebedev
Gerasim Lebedev should rightfully be considered the founder of Russian Indology. The second edition of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia calls him the first Russian Indologist. He first aroused scientific interest in Russia in India. Before the appearance of his works, India was studied only through translations from Western European languages. Bayer, noticing parallels in Sanskrit, Persian and Greek, found their only explanation in the Greek influence in the east. Lebedev was the first to point out the similarities between Sanskrit and Old Slavic, also discovering a striking similarity between the Sanskrit and Russian phonetic systems.
Gerasim Stepanovich Lebedev was born in 1749 in Yaroslavl into the family of a priest. Apparently, he came from a poor family, since he learned to read and write only at the age of 15. His studies in music and singing led to his being assigned to the Russian embassy in Naples, most likely as a musician or singer. The outbreak of war in Italy prevented him from reaching Naples, and Lebedev became a wandering musician. In 1782 he came to England, where he learned English and from where in 1785 he went to Madras on the British ship Rodney. There is no exact information about what prompted him to go specifically to India, and how his interest in Sanskrit, culture, history and modern languages of India developed, but Lebedev himself says the following about this in one of his letters: “Only the human race cannot be amused.” friends, but more for the benefit of the young men growing up in vastly prosperous Russia, he tried to learn the Bengali, Gindostan languages and as much as he could Shanskritsky. In order to remind and assure that without knowledge of them, a wanderer like me in different states of the Gindostan land will never find out about many things, and cannot find true news about the peoples who settled in them at different times.” From Madras, where Lebedev was unable to find a Sanskrit teacher who knew English, in 1785 he moved to Calcutta. There he meets Goloknath Das, who becomes his first teacher, and Lebedev is completely immersed in the study of Sanskrit, Bengali, and Hindustani. Thus, he receives higher education in India, in the classical Brahmanical spirit, studying languages, literature, philosophy, mathematics and astronomy with the pandits. It is interesting to note that Lebedev never encountered that hostile attitude on the part of the pandits, with their alleged reluctance to reveal ancient knowledge to foreigners, which the first Western European Sanskritologists (C. Wilkins, A. Du Perron, etc.) often complained about.
Lebedev did not limit himself to only the theoretical study of Indian wisdom, but decided to apply his new knowledge in practice. He translated the English dramas “Pretense” and “Love is the Best Doctor” into Bengali and staged them on the stage of the first Bengal Theater he founded. His attempt to rent the building of the English theater in Calcutta aroused ridicule from the English theater administration, which was confident that Lebedev’s enterprise would fail. Then he decided to build his own theater, where, after several months of work, on November 27, 1785, the premiere of the play took place in front of a packed hall and with great success. The idea of the director, composer, musician, conductor and set designer Lebedev was not only to introduce the Indian public to European drama, but also to introduce Indian art to European settlers and spread knowledge of Indian languages. His plans also included staging a play in Sanskrit. This use of theater as a basis for studying modern and preserving ancient languages was a complete innovation for that time.
The success of the theater could not help but attract the attention and envy of the East India Company and "Mr. Lebedev's Bengal Theater" fell victim to the intrigues of the owner of the English theater. Not only was Lebedev’s entire enterprise destroyed (with an attempt to set fire to the theater building), but he himself continued to be persecuted, blackmailed and presented with non-existent debts. All his attempts to achieve justice and protection were in vain. One of his English acquaintances advised him in a friendly letter that the very fact that he staged plays in Bengali could seriously harm him, not only because he was promoting Indian culture, but above all because he was jeopardizing a profitable business. In such a situation, it was impossible to find either a publisher for his works or any possibility of a musical career. At this time, he met with the Russian navigator Krusenstern, who visited Calcutta in 1797-1798. On his advice, Lebedev turned for help to Count Vorontsov, then ambassador in London. There is also an opinion that after the collapse in Calcutta, Lebedev received the position of Theater Manager at the court of Shah Alam II, the patron of poetry and art, but he himself does not mention this anywhere.
In 1801 in London, Lebedev published “Grammar of pure and mixed East Indian dialects,” the first work in Russian on modern Indian philology. Upon returning to Russia, Lebedev, like Efremov, entered service in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He also received the title of professor at the Academy of Sciences and organized a printing house where the Bengali script was cast for the first time in Europe.
For the first time in the history of Russian Indology, Lebedev said that Russian Indologists need to go to India to study not only ancient traditions, but also modern Indian life, customs, and morals. Perhaps Lebedev was one of the first to call for the need to acquaint the Western world with the rare richness of Indian philosophy and aesthetics, considering British colonial policy to be barbaric ignorance. In his book “An impartial contemplation of the Bramgen systems of Eastern India, their sacred rites and folk customs,” published in St. Petersburg in 1805, he wrote: “From everything we have said above, it is quite clear that the Indians are not at all like wild ones, and that They have more justice to attribute this reproach to those who treat them most cruelly than to the most bloodthirsty fierce beasts.”
With extraordinary insight and understanding of Indian life, Lebedev sought to present its culture as a living organism, nourished by ancient roots. For the first time he talks about Sanskrit not as a “dead” language that has fallen into disuse, but as the mother of other languages, as the key to knowledge. It is the amazing richness of Sanskrit that he explains the diversity of Indian dialects. He admires India's ability to remain faithful to its ancient traditions, despite the endless military invasions of foreigners who tried to introduce their principles and faith with fire and sword. In dedicating his book to the Russian emperor, he recalls the interest of Peter I and Catherine II in India and calls for further study of this country. He talks about the kinship of the Slavic and Indian languages, indicating the cultural and spiritual kinship of our peoples. Lebedev anticipates Schlegel, calling India the cradle of humanity: “Because Eastern India, in addition to its abundance and treasures, to which not only Europe, but perhaps the whole world looks with envious eyes, is that leading part of the world from which, according to the testimony of various everyday writers, the race human beings spread across the face of this earthly circle; and which the national Shomskrit language, not only with many Asian, but also with European languages, has a very noticeable convergence in rules.”
In all likelihood, Gerasim Lebedev was the first and only one at that time who represented Indian civilization from the standpoint of humanism, who saw its possible role in uniting the various religions of mankind. He wrote that the main goal of his travels and work was to expand worldviews, to penetrate into the structure of the world, since such understanding “makes a union in the human race scattered across the face of the earth, spreads throughout the universe the true concept of knowledge of God, orthodoxy and law, reinforces mutual connection the desired friendliness between peoples, and unites the ability to restore the general and universal good."
Rafail Danibegashvili (Danibegov)
The dates of birth and death of the Georgian traveler and diplomat are unknown. The main source of information about his life is his book describing long travels in the east, translated from Georgian into Russian and published in 1815. It is known that Danibegov was in India five times, but it was the third trip that is depicted in the book. Various researchers wrote about Danibegov and his wanderings: A.F. Richter, A.S. Khakhanashvili, the Armenian scientist A. Eritsov, the French orientalist Marie-Feliste Brosset, Grumm-Grzhimailo placed a brief description of Danibegov’s route in the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedia. In 1967, an article by R.R. was published. Orbeli “On the literary history of “Travel to India” by Rafail Danibegov.”
Ties between Georgia and India are much older than Russian-Indian ones for obvious geographical reasons. A trade route connecting India and the Mediterranean passed through Transcaucasia, which was mentioned by Greek authors back in the 4th-5th centuries. BC. Information about India also penetrated through Georgian soldiers who fought in the Iranian army. In 1622 they took part in Shah Abbas's war with India for the right to own Kandahar. In 1738-1739, the Georgian prince Irakli II, who was in Iran as a hostage, participated in the campaign of the Persian Shah Nadir against India.
Trade relations between Georgia and India continued throughout the 18th-19th centuries. The grave of the merchant Tamaz Khuduashvili has been preserved in Varanasi.
The Danibegashvili family, who lived in Tbilisi since the mid-18th century, belongs to Georgians converted to Catholicism by Italian and French missionaries. Several generations of Danibegashvili were engaged in trade with India, and at the same time carrying out diplomatic assignments. Thus, Danibegov did not end up in India by chance, but only became a worthy successor to the family business. Danibegov made his first two trips on the orders of King Irakli II, who sent him to the wealthy Armenian Shamir Agha (Shakhamiryan), who lived in India and sent significant sums to Georgia. On the third journey, just described in the book, Danibegov was sent by King George XIII from a gift village in Georgia to the same Shahamiryan as a token of gratitude. This journey began in a special political environment. The fact is that in 1795 the Persian Shah Agha Mohammed Khan, wanting to take revenge on Heraclius II for his friendship with Russia, attacked Georgia and burned Tbilisi. Three years later, Irakli II died, the throne was taken by his son George XIII, who was not distinguished by his talent as a commander. He turned to Paul I with a request for help and protection from Iranian enemies. The 17th Jaeger Regiment was sent to Georgia under the command of General Lazarev, and in 1801 Georgia became part of the Russian Empire. Danibegov made his travels both before and after this event.
Danibegov's third journey lasted 14 years. His route is described in detail in the book. As Danibegova history researcher L. Maruashvili points out, many geographical names are distorted and make it difficult to identify the stages of the route. So, for example, he calls the city of Srinagar Kashmir, and Leh - Tibet, etc.
Like Philip Efremov, Danibegov describes in detail the countries and cities on his way, their customs, rituals, climate, flora and fauna. But unlike Efremov, the Georgian traveler willingly talks about his feelings, about the troubles that befell him and the dangers he encountered. He talks about how horrified he was by the ritual of self-immolation of widows (sati), which he had to observe in Nurpur (Kangra district) or how in Patna “in a custom that should be called the most cruel, sick and weak people of both sexes and of any age, if the priests, based on their notes, say that they are close to death, put them in a coffin, bring them to the Ganges River and, having introduced them into water up to their knees, pour water into their mouths repeatedly...” Danibegov talks about the amazing temple of Jwala-Mukhi (Fire Goddess, V.D.), located near Nurpur in the same Kangra district, and how the Great Mogul Akbarsha wanted to pour water on the flame emanating from the top of the mountain, but to no avail. Pilgrims from all over India gather at this temple.
Danibegov makes an interesting observation about the Kashmiris who “bury their gold and silver in the ground and keep them as a secret, which they do not even reveal to their friends and which remains unknown after the death of those who buried them.” What is noteworthy here is that, if you believe Karamzin, this is exactly what our Slavic ancestors did with money and jewelry obtained in fierce battles, forgetting even during their lifetime where the treasure was buried.
Danibegov ends his description of his travels with enthusiastic words about the beauty and wealth of Moscow and praise of the Russian monarchy.
Peter Pashino
A born traveler, a member of the Russian Geographical Society, an expert in many oriental languages. Pashino was one of the first to visit and describe the Turkestan region, traveled around the world, was in Africa and more than once in Persia and India. Pashino described his Indian wanderings in the wonderful book “Across India,” published in St. Petersburg in 1885.
Pyotr Ivanovich Pashino was born in 1836. He lost his parents at an early age. He began studying oriental languages at the First Kazan Gymnasium, where he entered in 1845, and continued his studies at the Arabic-Turkish-Tatar department of Kazan University, and then St. Petersburg University, where he completed his education. After brilliantly graduating from university, Pashino is sent to excavations in Bolgars on the Volga. On the way back in Nizhny Novgorod, he met Dahl, who was very knowledgeable in numismatics. Dahl criticized the coins Pashino obtained during the excavations, but he casually threw one of them on the floor. As he was leaving, Pashino began to look for the coin and found it...under Dahl’s foot. The latter had no choice but to laugh and admit that the coin was rare, from the time of Dmitry Donskoy. Pashino's report on the trip was accepted as a candidate's dissertation, and in 1857 he was sent to serve in the Asian Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
In search of additional salary, Pashino begins literary activity. He publishes the leaflet “Fun” and writes articles for various magazines, including Sovremennik. In 1861 Pashino was sent to Persia as the second secretary of the embassy. Despite the brilliant opportunity to make a diplomatic career, knowledge of the East and Oriental languages, Pashino did not advance in the service. Life in the diplomatic mission was not to his liking. He returned to St. Petersburg, traveling around Northern Persia along the way. In St. Petersburg, Pashino published his notes about Persia in various periodicals. His essays were distinguished by extreme truthfulness, an accurate description of folk life and life. In his opinion, all the “miracles” of the East “lie only in contrasts with common sense.”
Despite the fact that in St. Petersburg Pashino was subjected to a search and interrogation as a recipient of “Land and Freedom” leaflets, he avoided arrest and did not lose his service. His next business trip was to Central Asia, where in 1866 Pashino was sent as a dragoman (translator) under the military governor of the region, Major General Romanovsky, and the aide-de-camp, Count Vorontsov-Dashkov. But after four months, Pashino was expelled from Tashkent under escort as “an unreliable person and harmful for service in the Turkestan region, due to his explanations and relations with the natives, as well as judgments about the affairs of the local region and the people who are here.” After spending some time in Orenburg, Pashino returned to St. Petersburg. Despite a sudden serious illness, he put in order the collected materials on Central Asia, and in 1868 his book “Turkestan Region in 1866” was published, for the first time describing in detail Turkestan immediately after its annexation to Russia. In addition, he writes essays for various magazines, and subsequently, with the help of Vorontsov-Dashkov, publishes the Asian Bulletin magazine. The content of the magazine seemed too democratic and freedom-loving to the censor, and the second issue, already printed, did not go on sale.
Peter Pashino goes to India, seemingly a completely free man. The Asian Herald is closed, its service in the Asian Department is over. Traveling to India has been a long-time dream. But from archival documents relating to this trip of Pashino, we learn that the British administration of India perceived him as a Russian spy who took part in preparing the seizure of India by Russia. In September 1873 he arrived by steamer at Bombay, from where he went to Amritsar and then to Jammu. From Amritsar we had to travel on foot and on horseback. The path was not easy, especially since after his illness Pashino had poor control of his right hand and limped. We learn that on the way he posed as a Turkish doctor, but, noticing that he was suspected, “switched places with his servant, took off all his clothes, smeared himself with donkey dung to give a dark color to his skin, and followed his servant, having only a turban on his head and a loincloth.” Despite his disguise, he was recognized by a certain Afghan who had seen him before in Samarkand. He reported to the local ruler, and Pashino barely managed to avoid execution. His knowledge of the language and the Koran saved him. On the way back, Pashino intended to “travel through independent India into Russian possessions.” Not surprisingly, he was instantly expelled from India by the British.
In 1874-1875 Pashino is again trying to carry out his plan to penetrate Russian Turkestan from Kashmir. From Peshawar he planned to get to Chitral and then to Samarkand. Not surprisingly, the British were extremely alarmed by this proposed route. In the “Communication of the Government of India to the Minister for India, Lord Salisbury, concerning the Russian traveler Pashino, who intends for the second time to make an attempt to pass to Samarkand through Chitral, and the measures taken by the Government of India to prevent the implementation of his plan,” we read the following: “Judging by the fact, what Pashino has said about himself, we have come to the conclusion that his presence in the countries he intends to visit may cause significant inconvenience, and we believe that it would be desirable for him to be prevented from carrying out his plan. We have therefore directed the Punjab Government to warn Pashino in accordance with Sections 1 and 2 of Instruction VIII of 1873 that he will not be permitted to cross the British Border and also to convey to the Maharajah of Kashmir our wish that Pashino should not be permitted to pass through His Highness's Territory "
Despite the official ban, Pashino dresses up as an Arab and travels on a train to the north, but for trying to drink tea in the first class buffet, he is beaten by an English policeman. He returns to his homeland without realizing his plan. Pashino nevertheless traveled enormous distances on foot, visited places where no European had ever been before, and spoke about what he saw in his book “Across India,” written easily, elegantly, and with a wonderful sense of humor.
For the third time, Pashino found himself in India in 1876 as an accompanying son of the richest Moscow merchant A.I. Khludov on his trip around the world. And this time Pashino is under the watchful supervision of the British, who consider him a dangerous person whose movements must be strictly controlled.
In the last years of his life, Pashino was going to publish his travels under the general title “Around the World.” When the first volume of “Across India” was published, it was indicated that the following editions were being prepared for printing – “Across Persia”, “Across Turkestan”, “Across China, Japan and North America”, but they were not destined to see the light of day. The end of Pashino’s life was overshadowed by extreme poverty, loneliness, and illness: “I’m broken on both legs again... Everyone has forgotten me, I don’t see anyone, there’s no tea or sugar in my kennel - for the second week there’s nothing to eat... Things are really bad, “You’ll have to stretch out your hand, or even put a noose around your neck.” In 1886 he fell under the hooves of a horse while leaving the Alexandrinsky Theater. He was placed in an almshouse, where he died, forgotten by everyone, on September 3, 1891.
Thus ended the journey of life of Peter Pashino, a tireless wanderer and seeker. Despite all the obstacles and illnesses, Pashino’s spirit was uncontrollably eager to go on long journeys, not attaching the slightest importance to either career or personal gain. This man was unlucky in the way that truly outstanding people are often unlucky, especially in Russia. The inability and unwillingness to bow threw Pashino out of the ordinary social structure and led to a fairly early death. Probably those who saw him as a dangerous spy would be surprised to learn that the “tsarist intelligence agent” could not only publish his extensive works, but also simply feed himself. What if Pashino could find his refuge, for example, in the Himalayas, like that old Cossack he met in the north of India? But the subjunctive mood does not exist. Let this small note be a modest tribute to a talented, freedom-loving and courageous person.
Ibid., p. 15.
Schlegel, August Wilhelm. 1767-1845. German philologist, Sanskrit scholar, translator of Shakespeare, brother of Friedrich Schlegel, poet, philosopher, founder of the movement of German romanticism.
Lebedev, G.S. "An impartial contemplation of the systems of the East Indian Bramgens, their sacred rites and folk customs." St. Petersburg, 1805, p. I.
There, the introduction.
"Travel to India of the Georgian nobleman Rafail Danibegov." Tbilisi, 1963, p. 27.
Jwalamukhi Temple is known as Shakti Peetha i.e. a place marked by the presence of Davy,
Goddesses. There are nine such main pithas in India. Danibegov incorrectly explains “jvalamukhi” as “Holy Lady, have mercy,” and in a note to the Tbilisi edition of his 1963 book
"jwalamukhi" is erroneously translated as "mouth of the goddess". V.D.
Ibid., p. 33.
Quote according to Gnevusheva, E.I. The Forgotten Traveler. Moscow, 1958, p. 17.
Ibid., p. 49.
The popular uprising of 1857 in India “created favorable conditions for intensifying Russian actions in Central and South Asia. Projects for campaigns of Russian troops against Hindustan appeared. In this regard, it is necessary to emphasize two provisions that are of fundamental importance. First: these projects aimed at expelling the British from Hindustan, and not conquering India. Second: these projects were rejected by the Russian royal court. There was no real threat of Russian conquest of India” (Russian-Indian relations in the 19th century. Moscow, 1997, p. 9).
Russian-Indian relations in the 19th century. From the resume of the assistant secretary of the secret-political department of India, office of R. Michell. Moscow, 1997, p. 169.
Ibid., p. 171.
Quote according to Gnevusheva, E.I. The Forgotten Traveler. Moscow, 1958, p. 103.
For a month the Portuguese stood at the mouth of the Kvakva, repairing ships. On February 24, the flotilla left the estuary, reached the port and then went north. A week later, the flotilla approached the port city of Mombasa. Coming out of Mombasa, Gama detained an Arab dhow at sea, plundered it and captured 19 people. On 14 April he anchored in Malindi Harbour. The local sheikh greeted Gama friendly, since he himself was at enmity with Mombasa. He entered into an alliance with the Portuguese against a common enemy and gave them a reliable old pilot, Ibn Majid, who was supposed to lead them to South-West India. The Portuguese left Malindi with him on April 24. Ibn Majid headed northeast and, taking advantage of the favorable monsoon, brought the ships to India, the coast of which appeared on May 17. Seeing Indian land, Ibn Majid moved away from the dangerous shore and turned south. Three days later, a high cape appeared, probably Mount Delhi. Then the pilot approached the admiral with the words: “This is the country you were striving for.” By the evening of May 20, 1498, the Portuguese ships, having advanced about 100 km to the south, stopped at a roadstead against the city of Calicut (now Kozhikode).
Gama's expedition was not unprofitable for the crown, despite the loss of two ships: in Calicut it was possible to purchase spices and jewelry in exchange for government goods and personal belongings of sailors; Gama's pirate operations in the Arabian Sea brought considerable income. But, of course, this was not what caused rejoicing in Lisbon among the ruling circles. The expedition found out what enormous benefits direct maritime trade could bring for them with the proper economic, political and military organization of the matter. The discovery of a sea route to India for Europeans was one of the greatest events in the history of world trade. From that moment until the digging of the Suez Canal (1869), the main commerce of Europe with countries and with went not through, but through - past the Cape of Good Hope. Portugal, which held in its hands “the key to eastern navigation,” became in the 16th century. the strongest naval power, seized the monopoly of trade with and held it for 90 years - until the defeat of the Invincible Armada (1588).