Geographical location of Indonesia. Indonesia, the Republic of Indonesia, is the largest country in Southeast Asia and the largest island country in the world. Indonesia's territory extends. Video playlist about Indonesia
Singapore is the largest port and largest industrial center in Southeast Asia with a high standard of living. With its important strategic location at the crossroads of sea routes between Europe, Asia and Australia, Singapore has become one of the leading shopping centers peace. In relation to other countries of Southeast Asia, it traditionally plays the role of a “marketplace” - goods produced in neighboring countries arrive here - for example, rubber and tin from Malaysia, rice from Thailand, which are then sent to other regions. At the same time, industrial goods are brought here from the USA, Europe, and Japan. Singapore ranks second in the world in terms of cargo turnover. It is equipped with berths for various types of vessels, serves 250 lines and receives 150 vessels daily. Singapore Airport is a major hub international airlines, equipped for round-the-clock flights in any weather conditions. This is one of the most modern and comfortable airports in the world, and Singapore Airlines enjoys the trust of passengers all over the world. Singapore receives 6–8 million tourists annually. The total length of railways is 38 km, roads – 2597 km. The currency is the Singapore dollar.
Like Singapore, the Philippines and Indonesia occupy an advantageous geographical position-at the crossroads of the world's water and air routes connecting Asia, Australia, Europe and America. But unlike Singapore, the Asian tiger, Indonesia and the Philippines are third-tier countries. The agricultural sector plays an important role in the economies of these countries. Sea transport plays a major role in transportation. Main ports of Indonesia: Jakarta, Kupang, Palembang, Ujungpandang, Semarang, Surabaya, Cheribon. The Port of Jakarta is one of the largest ports in Asia. The leading role in the transportation of both goods and passengers in Indonesia is played by rail, road, water transport and pipeline transport.
Of the land modes of transport in the Philippines, as in Indonesia, road transport is especially important. In 1994, approx. 2,300 thousand cars and motorcycles, the latter accounting for 25% of the vehicle fleet. Network length highways– approximately 100 thousand km, less than half of which have modern surfaces (29,000 paved roads). On Luzon Island, in addition to railway tracks with a total length of 740 km, an elevated Railway in Manila. Most of the cargo, as in other countries of the region, is transported by sea. Cargo cabotage along the coasts of the islands and between them is carried out by thousands of different ships, which have more than 500 ports at their disposal. Several dozen large ports, led by Manila, accept ocean-going ships. Communication between the islands is also provided by 87 public airports, of which two are international: in Manila and on Mactan Island (near Cebu). The monetary unit of Indonesia is the Indonesian rupiah, and the currency of the Philippines is the Philippine peso.
A peculiar feature of island Indonesia among the countries of the region is the presence of land borders. Indonesia borders East Timor (on the island of Timor, border length 228 km), Malaysia (on the island of Kalimantan, 1782 km), Papua New Guinea(on the island New Guinea, 820 km). The total length of the borders is 2830 km. The Philippines and Singapore have no land borders.
The countries of the region participate in the following international organizations: UN, ASEAN, WTO, APEC, IBRD, ADB, ESCAP, FAO, GATT, IAEA, ICAO, ICFTU, IMF, IFC, ILO, IMO, INTERPOL, IOC, ISO, ITU, IDA, UNCTAD, UPU, WHO, WMO. Indonesia and the Philippines belong to more organizations than Singapore: IFAD, IFC, UNESCO, UNIDO, CGT, WIPO. In addition, Indonesia is a member of OPEC, TCC, IDB, WMO and, unlike other countries in the region, is not a member of LEVF and INTELSAT.
PAGE_BREAK--Average population density – 132 people/V. km. The distribution of the population is uneven. For example, on the islands of Java and Madura, occupying approx. 7% of Indonesia's area, home to over 70% of all residents of the country. The population density here is approx. 916 people/V. km. (in some places it reaches 1500–2500 people/V. km.). The opposite picture is observed on the island. New Guinea: here, on 22% of Indonesia's territory, only 1% of its inhabitants are concentrated (5.3 people/V. km). Kalimantan, covered with tropical rainforests, also belongs to the sparsely populated areas of Indonesia. Its population density (approx. 11,331 thousand in 2000) was 20.7 people/V. km. In Java, agriculture comes down mainly to working in flooded fields (sawahs) where rice is grown. In Kalimantan, they mainly use the slash-and-burn farming system (ladang), in which semi-nomadic tribes cut down and burn young trees. It is possible to harvest from such non-flooded lands for several years, and then these areas are abandoned for several years and new ones are developed in the same way. Flood fields are used continuously.
B) Urbanization. In Indonesia, the trend is towards an accelerated outflow of people from villages. Compared to 1940, the total population of the largest cities has increased 10 times. Average annual urban population growth in the 1990s was 3.6%. The cities are inhabited by approx. 43% of the population (as of 2002). The process of urbanization is especially pronounced in Java. In the capital of the country, Jakarta, there were 533 thousand inhabitants in 1930, 2.9 million in 1961, 4.6 million in 1971, and 6.5 million in 1980. The number of residents of Jakarta in 2004 reached 8,987 thousand people, and in the urban agglomeration - 17,891 thousand people. Large cities (as of January 1, 2004) in Java also include Surabaya (3.092 thousand), Bandung (2.781 thousand), Tangerang (1.344 million), Semarang (1.289 thousand), Malang (841.5 thousand .), Bogor (697.1 thousand, according to other estimates - 1.5 million inhabitants), Surakarta (606.7 thousand) and Yogyakarta (492.8 thousand, according to other estimates - 3.122 thousand. life,
D) Ethnic composition. In Indonesia there are approx. 330 ethnic and tribal groups, each with its own language, customs and social organization. The most numerous of them are Javanese; their share of the country's population is 45%. They inhabit most of Central, Eastern and partly Western Java, South coast Sumatra and Kalimantan. They are followed by the Sundanese (14%) from West Java and the Madurese (7.5%), occupying, in addition to Fr. Madura, eastern Java. The western and eastern parts of Sumatra are inhabited by the Minangkabau (3.3%), and north coast- Bataks and Acehnese. The isolated mountainous regions of North Sumatra are inhabited by the Gayos and Alas. Malays (7.5%) form the main population in the eastern and southeastern parts of Sumatra, on the coast of Kalimantan and the Riau Islands. Other major nationalities include the Banjdars, close to the Malays, and the Dayaks of Kalimantan (the indigenous population of the island). The southwest of Sulawesi is inhabited by Bugis and Makassars, and the mountainous areas of the center are inhabited by Toraja tribes. The Balinese live on the island of Bali; Lombok - Sasaki. Among the peoples of the Moluccas Islands, the Ambonians stand out. Most of New Guinea is inhabited by Papuan peoples. In addition, many small nations with local habitats are represented.
D) Languages. Indonesia ranks second in the world in terms of the number of living languages. 728 languages and dialects are spoken here. The languages of the country's indigenous ethnic groups vary widely, although they all belong to the Malayo-Polynesian (Austronesian) language family, including Javanese, the most widely spoken language in Indonesia. It is native to 75 million inhabitants, especially on the island. Java. The only exceptions are the Papuan languages, which are spoken in West Papua and other areas of eastern Indonesia. A single national language - Indonesian, or Bahasa Indonesia, was adopted in 1945. It is based on a dialect of Malay known as Riau Malay, which at one time acted as the main language of trade and communication between the inhabitants of the archipelago. Despite its official status, Bahasa Indonesia is considered native to only 30 million people (about 7% of the population). This language is taught in all schools and is the language spoken by educated and urban Indonesians. Writing is based on the Latin alphabet; in 1972, Indonesia and Malaysia agreed on a common orthography.
E) Religion. Indonesia is a multi-religious country. Islam, Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism), Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, and animism coexist here, covering various linguistic and social groups of the population. The Indonesian Constitution guarantees freedom of religion and equality of all faiths. Indonesia is the largest Muslim country in the world. The vast majority of Indonesians (approx. 88% of the population) profess Islam. These are mainly Shafi'i Sunnis, but there are also adherents of other legal schools - Hanafi, Hanbali and Maliki. Shiites are represented by some immigrants from India and Pakistan. Although in some parts of Indonesia (Sumatra, west Java and south-east Kalimantan) Muslims strictly observe Islam, in other places the religion is generally heavily influenced by Buddhism and animist beliefs. There are over 100 thousand mosques. Christians make up approx. 9% of the population. Their main centers are concentrated mainly in the provinces of North Sumatra, North Sulawesi, East Nusa Tenggara, Central Java and Papua, as well as in the capital region. Among Christians, Protestants predominate, led by the Union of Churches in Indonesia, which unites over 60 Lutheran and Reformed churches. The largest among them are the Christian Protestant Batak Church (more than 3 million members), the Christian Evangelical Church of the Minahas (over 500 thousand), the Indonesian Christian church(350 thousand), Protestant Christian Church (337 thousand) and Christian Protestant Church in Indonesia (255 thousand). Catholics approx. 2.6% of the population. Organizationally, they are headed by the Supreme Church Trustee Council of Indonesia. Almost all residents of Bali and the majority of Tengger in East Java practice Hinduism (about 2% of the population), influenced by Buddhism, while most Chinese remain adherents of Buddhism (about 1% of the population), Confucianism (0.5%) or Taoism. At the end of the 1970s, there were 1,260 Buddhists and 171,000 Buddhists in Indonesia. Hindu temples, OK. 4 thousand monasteries. In the interior of the islands, animism is widespread - the belief that the world is filled with all kinds of spirits hiding in volcanoes, wind, rivers, trees, rocks, graves, daggers, gongs, drums, etc. Local tribal beliefs predominate among the Dayaks, Kubu, Bataks, Papuans, etc.
4.Government structure:
A) Executive branch. The head of state, government and supreme commander of the Indonesian armed forces is the president, who is assisted in the performance of his duties by the vice president. The President and Vice-President are elected (since 2004) by universal direct and secret suffrage for a period of five years, after which they can be elected again, but for no more than one more term. Previously, the president was elected by parliament. Presidential and vice-presidential candidates are nominated by a common list from political parties or their coalitions that won at least 5% of the votes in parliamentary elections, or 3% of the 550 seats (that is, 17 seats) in the Council of People's Representatives. If none of the lists receives the required majority of votes, a second round is held, in which a relative majority of votes is sufficient to win. The first popularly elected President of the Republic of Indonesia was retired General Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, who won over 60.9% of the votes out of 122 million voters in the second round of the presidential election (September 20, 2004). The inauguration of the first popularly elected president took place on October 20, 2004. According to the constitution, the president is empowered to submit bills to the Council of People's Representatives (PRC) and approve government regulations for their implementation; declare war, conclude peace and treaties with other states; if necessary, declare a state of emergency and govern the country by decrees. Previously, the head of state had the authority to issue laws, but changes made to the text of the constitution in 1997 deprived him of this right. The President also appoints and dismisses ministers, ambassadors and consuls, has the right of amnesty and pardon, conferring titles and honorary insignia. At the same time, being the head of the executive branch, he does not have the right to interfere in the work of parliament, dissolve the legislative body or suspend its activities. The government of the republic, the cabinet of ministers, operates under the leadership of the president. The government has the right to issue laws with the consent of the People's Congress, as well as to develop appropriate regulations for their implementation. Ministers appointed by the president head government ministries and assist the president in his activities. Formed in October 2004, the “Cabinet of a United Indonesia” (Kabinet Indonesia Bersatu) includes, in addition to the president and vice-president, 34 members and the Attorney General. The central government bodies include the Supreme Audit Office, which exercises control over the execution of the financial side of the state budget. Its members are nominated by the People's Representative Council and appointed by the president. The previous version of the Constitution envisaged the creation of a Supreme Advisory Council under the President, with the right to provide advice to the President at his request.
B) Legislative branch. Belongs to the People's Consultative Congress. Under Suharto, the Congress met once every five years to elect a president (each time Suharto became) and a vice president, and also approve the “Main Directions of State Policy.” According to constitutional amendments that came into force in 2004, the People's Consultative Congress lost its significance as the highest representative body of government and was transformed into a parliament, which consists of two chambers - the Council of People's Representatives (PRC) and the Council of Regional Representatives (CRP). Congress has the power to adopt and amend the constitution, install the president and vice president, and initiate the procedure for removing the president from power. The size of the Congress is not specified. Formed after the elections in 2004, the Congress consists of 550 members of the SNP and 128 members of the SWP. Deputies of both chambers are elected by direct universal suffrage for a term of five years. Previously, the Congress was formed from members of parliament - the People's Representative Council, as well as representatives from political parties, provinces delegated by local People's Congresses, and functional groups. The latter were appointed by presidential decree. According to the law of 1969, the NCC consisted of 920 members, of which 460 were members of parliament. In 1987, the Congress was expanded to 1000 members. After the reforms approved on January 28, 1999, the composition of the NCC was reduced to 700 seats: 500 seats were allocated to parliamentary deputies, 135 seats to provincial representatives and 65 seats to representatives of functional groups. Current legislative activities are carried out by the Council of People's Representatives. Under Suharto, the Council met regularly throughout the year to discuss laws proposed by the executive branch. Along with deputies elected from party lists, it also included a certain number of members appointed by the government and delegated by the military. According to the law, the Council elected in 2004 consists of 550 members. From now on, all seats in parliament are distributed only among political parties that took part in the general parliamentary elections. Military representatives lost their quotas in parliament. The Chamber must meet at least once a year and approve the country's budget and bills submitted for consideration by the government or members of parliament. If the proposed bill does not receive support, then with the current composition of parliament it cannot be introduced for discussion a second time. All laws come into force only after approval by the President.
B) Local authorities. Administratively, the Republic of Indonesia is divided into 33 provinces, including the Special Regions of the Sultanate of Yogyakarta and Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam, as well as the Special Capital Region of Greater Jakarta. The provinces are headed by governors who exercise executive functions. The Governor of Yogyakarta, who is the Sultan, holds this post for life. However, the current ruler of Yogyakarta, Sultan Hamengkubuwono X, took over the governorship through direct elections. Previously, before constitutional reform in 1999, governors were appointed by the president on the recommendation of provincial legislatures after prior consultation with the minister of the interior. As a rule, most governors were from among the armed forces. The provinces are divided into kabupaten (regions or districts), and the latter into kecamatan (subdistricts). Municipalities are formed in large cities. The executive power in kabupaten is headed by the head of the regional administration - bupati, and in municipalities - by city mayors. Appointment to the post of bupati and mayor is carried out by the provincial governor in conjunction with regional representative bodies, and confirmation of the post is made by the Minister of Internal Affairs. Voters take part in elections to provincial, city and district legislative bodies - councils of people's representatives. The number of seats in provincial SNPs ranges from 45 to 100 seats, and in district or municipal assemblies from 20 to 45, depending on the population of a given region, with each lower-level region receiving 1 seat in the legislative assembly of a higher-level region.
G) Judicial system. Consists of the Supreme Court, the Constitutional Court, high and district courts, as well as courts of special jurisdiction. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Court in Jakarta. The chairman and all members of the court are appointed by the president from a list of candidates approved by the legislature. The Supreme Court has the right to supervise the activities of other judicial bodies and is the court of last instance, vested with the right to consider cassation appeals against sentences and decisions passed by lower courts. Previously within the competence of the Supreme Court, issues related to the interpretation of the constitution, as well as the dissolution of political parties and the removal from office of the president and vice president, were transferred to the Constitutional Court, established on August 17, 2003. In the largest cities of the country - Jakarta, Surabaya, Medan, Makassar , Banda Aceh, Padang, Palembang, Bandung, Semarang, Banjarmasin, Manado, Denpasar, Ambon and Jayapura - there are High Courts that hear major criminal and civil cases, as well as appeals from decisions of lower courts. The lowest instance is formed by district courts, which hear minor criminal and civil cases. The presidents and members of local courts are appointed by the Minister of Justice and Human Rights. Courts of special jurisdiction have also been created by law: the Commercial Court, specializing in bankruptcy cases with possible recourse to a special bankruptcy tribunal of the Supreme Court; courts of military justice; religious courts that hear cases based on the Koran, adat and Sharia and cover almost exclusively issues of family and marital relations.
D) Political organizations. The first political parties and organizations (Budi Utomo, Indian Party, Sarekat Islam, etc.) appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. After the country gained independence, the main role in political life played by the Indonesian National Party (NPI), the Communist Party (CPI) and Muslim parties (Nahdlatul Ulama, Mashumi). However, the democratic experiment did not last long. After the establishment of a system of “managed democracy” in the early 1960s, the government adopted a policy of “simplifying” the system of political parties, as a result of which not only the Indonesian Socialist Party and Mashumi (1960), suspected of participating in anti-government riots, were banned, but and dozens of other smaller parties. After Suharto came to power, a ban was imposed on the activities of the Indonesian Communist Party. However, while continuing the course of “simplifying the party system,” Suharto at the same time sought to give his regime a more democratic appearance. For this purpose, the political organization Golkar (Golongan Karya) was founded, which united civil servants, officers and, to a lesser extent, students, peasants, women, etc. in the so-called "functional groups". Suharto also allowed political organizations that did not enjoy the support of the authorities, but after the 1971 elections he forced nine parties, different in political orientation and religious composition, to merge into two, thereby creating a three-party system. Small nationalist and Christian parties (Indonesian National Party , The Indonesian Independence Union, the Catholic Party, the Indonesian Christian Party and the Poor People's Party) created the Indonesian Democratic Party in 1973, and instead of the four Muslim parties, the Unity and Development Party arose.
E) Public organizations. Behind the Muslim parties are mass Islamic organizations: the conservative Nahdatul Ulama (up to 40 million members, chairman - Hasim Muzadi) and the modernist - Muhammadya (founded in 1912, about 28 million people, 14 thousand schools, 160 universities, thousands of mosques; chairman - Syafi Maarif). Recently, a process of rapprochement between these organizations has begun on the basis of defending Islam from attacks and accusations of supporting religious violence, which is associated with the US campaign against international terrorism. There are dozens of militant Islamist groups operating openly or semi-legally in the country, many of which have been involved in acts of violence and ethnic cleansing in various parts of the country. Jamaah Islamiyah(“Islamic Community”) is a radical Islamist movement advocating the creation of an Islamic caliphate in Southeast Asia (in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, Cambodia, the Southern Philippines and Southern Thailand). Laskar Jihad(“Warriors of the Holy War”) is a paramilitary religious and political group. Islamic Defenders Front is a radical group created in 1997. Unlike others, it does not fight for the creation of an Islamic state, but demands strict adherence to Sharia law. Known for creating paramilitary gangs that attacked bars and nightclubs in Jakarta. Participates in religious conflict in the Moluccas and Sumatra. Has several thousand members.
G) Foreign policy. Suharto was pragmatic, but last years he was looking, as the Indonesians believe, for ways to pursue a “more active and independent course.” In the early 1990s, Indonesia played a key role in ending civil war in Cambodia. From 1991 to 1995, Jakarta held the chairmanship of the Non-Aligned Movement, and since the early 1990s it has become the site of informal meetings of representatives of countries involved in a conflict with China over the delimitation of territorial waters in the South China Sea. In 1994, Indonesia hosted the annual forum of heads of state of the Asian Economic Cooperation Organization and Pacific Ocean, at which Suharto convinced his colleagues of the need to transform the region into a free trade zone. In the early 1960s, Indonesia was in tense relations with its neighbors, especially Singapore and Malaysia. Suharto's efforts focused on the creation of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which Indonesia initiated in 1967. However, Indonesian-Malaysian relations were complicated by territorial disputes, illegal labor migration from Indonesia to Malaysia, and rebels fleeing to Malaysia from Sumatran Ache Special Region in the early 1990s. Under Suharto, Indonesia maintained close political ties with the United States, Japan and most Western European countries. This position was not unexpected, given the fact that Suharto came to power as a result of the defeat of the Indonesian Communist Party, at that time the third largest among the communist parties in the world. Relations with the PRC, which helped the Indonesian communists, were frozen until 1990.
5.Economy:
A) Economic history. In 1949, when Indonesia won independence, its economy consisted of two main sectors. One of them included plantations, mines, oil fields, oil refineries and other large industrial enterprises. At all these facilities, the production process was mechanized, technologically developed and provided with skillful management. The other sector consisted of peasant farms and small-scale industry, often in the form of cottage industries. If we abstract from several large sugar plantations, then until 1830 the main suppliers of agricultural products on the islands of the archipelago remained the farms of peasants and small tenants. At one time, the Dutch traded with villagers mainly through Chinese intermediaries. However, after the Napoleonic wars, the authorities introduced the so-called “the system of forced crops”, which boiled down to the compulsory supply of export agricultural products by local farmers. Later, the main emphasis was placed on the development of the plantation sector. Until the end of the 19th century. Economic activity The Dutch took place mainly in the hinterlands of Javanese seaports. Steam engines appeared on the archipelago as early as 1825 and were first used on civil and military ships. By the early 1880s, the mechanization of Java's powerful sugar industry, linked to transport and other industrial infrastructure, was almost complete. According to some experts in the economic history of Southeast Asia, in 1900 on a par with such leading industrial centers Asia, like Calcutta, Mumbai (Bombay) and Osaka, stood Surabaya in the northeast.
B) Economic growth. After 1969, the Indonesian government began planned economic development based on a 25-year program that included five five-year plans. The political and economic crisis of 1997–1998 led to the collapse of the Seventh Five-Year Plan. Before the surge in global oil prices (1967–1973), Indonesia's average annual GDP growth was an impressive 7.9%, with financial structures and construction growing fastest. From 1973 to 1981, GDP growth slowed to 7.5% per year, led by the same financial sector and manufacturing industries. The decline to 4.3% between 1981 and 1988 was a consequence of declining revenues from oil and gas exports. From 1989 to 1996, the efforts of the central authorities aimed at developing export industries led to an increase in GDP of more than 7% per year. But the most impressive thing was the increase in the cost of services and the number of employees in the tertiary sector. Per capita income rose from $75 in 1966 to $1,013 in 1996, but the recession, widespread unemployment and the sharp depreciation of the Indonesian rupiah caused by the financial and economic crisis in 1997–1998 led to a decrease in this figure in 1998 to 400 dollars. The crisis was expressed in a decrease in economic growth rates from 7.8% in 1996 to 2.9% in 1998, a reduction in GDP from $227 billion in 1996 to $160 billion in 2000. However, thanks to export income crude oil and gas produced in 2003–2004, GDP increased from $172.9 billion in 2002 to $758.8 billion in 2004. Real GDP growth in 2004 was 4.1%, and per capita income population – $3,200. However, such growth only led to increased unevenness in income distribution.
B) Employment of the population. Since 1980, the economically active population has increased by 45 million people. The contingent of the amateur population is annually replenished by approximately 2.5–3 million due to the influx of young people. Only a part of them are employed in big cities at enterprises and construction sites. Most Indonesians who are unable to find a place in the formal sector seek work in the informal structures that characterize urban centers. Today, according to estimates for 2004, the economically active population of Indonesia is 105.7 million people, of which 41.2% are women. Large government investments in the development of public education in the 1970s resulted in an increase in the adult literacy rate from 47% in 1961 to 89% in 1997. However, the industrialization process of the 1980–1990s revealed a shortage of qualified workers. Fully employed in production – approx. 60 million people. According to official data, the unemployment rate fell from 10.6% in 2002 to 8.7% in 2004, with unemployment being particularly high among those with higher education in the mid-1990s. The number of people below the poverty line is 27% (1999). Despite the outflow of labor from agriculture to other sectors, the majority of the population (44%) is employed in agriculture; 38% work in the service sector, 17% work in industry. The mining industry employs less than one percent of the total workforce, but contributes more than 10% of GDP and generates more than 2/3 of export earnings. Indonesia's main mineral resources are petroleum, natural gas, tin, alumina, nickel, copper, coal, manganese and iron ore.
D) Agriculture. Despite the fact that the share of agriculture in the country's gross product has been steadily declining - from 28% in 1981 to 16.6% in 2004 - it continues to be the most important sector of the Indonesian economy, employing approximately. 45% of the amateur population, mainly land-poor peasants or hired farmers. workers on plantations. During the first three five-year plans, the government spent considerable money on stimulating the country's agricultural production, paying particular attention to the development of irrigation, the creation of infrastructure, and the dissemination of new varieties of cultivated plants among peasants. The increase in production was also facilitated by encouraging the creation of cooperative enterprises and agricultural banks. As a result, by 1984 Indonesia switched to self-sufficiency in food products. However, due to high population growth, drought and the 1997 crisis, the country is again forced to import large amounts of food, including rice and wheat. The question of land ownership and the size of peasant plots remains very acute, especially in Java and Madura.
D) Service sector. Over the past 30 years, wholesale and retail trade enterprises, transport, communications, financial services, various professional services have developed, and the network of hotels and restaurants has expanded. The service sector in the mid-1990s – the first half of the 2000s provided from 35 to 41% of GDP and was characterized by high (8.6%) growth rates.
E) Transport. The most important role in life is played by sea and river navigation, providing communication with the islands of the archipelago and neighboring countries. The country has hundreds of ports of varying importance - from universal ones with container berths to small roadstead anchorages. The largest ports that carry out the bulk of transactions with foreign trade cargo are Perak (Surabaya), Balawan (Medan), Makassar (Sulawesi) and Tanjung Priok (Jakarta). Oil and natural gas are exported mainly through ports in Sumatra. The total tonnage of the merchant fleet (710 ships, over 1 thousand tons) – 3,045 thousand tons. T. The main transportation is carried out by sea and river transport; Ferries operate between the islands. Road transport is becoming increasingly important. In the 1970s, the authorities made large investments in building roads and improving communications. Modern road networks are concentrated mainly in economically developed and densely populated areas. Length of highways (1999) –
G) Money circulation. Monetary unit of Indonesia before 1945: 1 Javanese guilder = 100 cents; from November 2, 1949: 1 Indonesian rupiah = 100 senam; after currency reform in 1965: 1 Indonesian rupiah = 100 new sen (1 new rupiah = 1000 old rupiah). Initially, the rupee exchange rate was 3.80 to 1 US dollar. As a result of inflation and repeated devaluations, the Indonesian currency has steadily declined. Provoked by the economic crisis in Southeast Asia (1998), another depreciation of the Indonesian rupiah by 35% led to the fall of the Suharto government. In the Riau archipelago, until December 1, 1963, the Malayan dollar was in official circulation. On October 15, 1963, the Rihua Island rupiah was introduced into circulation, equal to 1 Malayan dollar. The Indonesian rupiah replaced the local one on July 1, 1964. West Irian from March 30, 1950 to May 1, 1963 it had its own currency (1 Dutch New Guinea guilder = 100 cents). After joining Indonesia in 1963, the Irian Barat rupiah was launched and circulated within the country as a separate currency. The Indonesian rupiah replaced the Irian Barat rupiah on February 18, 1971.
6.Society:
A) Social structure. Indonesia has an extremely complex social structure. For example, in Java, a typical family consists of a married couple and children, is independent in everyday life and does not maintain close ties with other relatives. Meanwhile, complex families are common in Bali, in which several brothers with wives and children live with their parents.
B) Rural society. Although the urban population continues to grow, Indonesia remains a predominantly rural country. Much of the population of Java and Bali is included in rice-growing communities. Once upon a time, during the period of the Indo-Javanese principalities of the 8th–13th centuries, these territories were strongly influenced by Hinduism. Many Javanese are considered Muslims, however, even today in the coastal regions of Java, from where in the 15th and 16th centuries. Islam began to spread, Hindu and Buddhist traditions can still be traced. Borrowed ideas about castes and the special hierarchical system emerging on their basis, which took root primarily in Java during the period of Dutch rule, did not disappear either. At the very top of the social pyramid are the descendants of princely families, the next layer is formed by civil servants - priyais, who occupy administrative positions in the villages. However, the majority of the population of Java and Bali are peasants who earn their livelihood by working in the flooded fields.
C) Urban Society Unlike the rural population, the urban community in any part of Indonesia has more or less similar social structure. Therefore, all the differences between the country's major cities are explained rather by historical circumstances, for example, the clear influence of the Dutch colonial period (which is still noticeable in the architecture of Ambon and Manado) or the presence of national minorities (for example, the largest community of ethnic Chinese in the archipelago is in the city of Medan). In both large and small cities across the country, the non-Chinese elite consists of government officials, senior army officers and leading politicians. This layer of the elite also includes individual entrepreneurs, doctors, university teachers, and artists, whose professional authority increases their chances of occupying an administrative or political position. The social status of such people is determined not only by their financial independence. Citizens belonging to the elite usually know one of the European languages (in former times Dutch, now English), are familiar with the problems of European and American countries, and have a university education. Although such qualities significantly separate them from ordinary compatriots, in private life many adhere to national traditions - for example, they wear a sarong at home, prefer rice to other foods, etc.
D) The status of women. The country is characterized by a high social status of women. In certain segments of the population, women enjoy considerable authority due to their key role in bringing families together. With legal equality, women can inherit property, except when Sharia law comes into force. Indonesian women have achieved considerable success in small business and often occupy high positions in business and government. Even among devout Muslims, Indonesian women do not adhere to a reclusive lifestyle, are not limited in movement and do not cover their faces, but only cover their heads with a headscarf. The importance of women in Indonesian national culture is symbolized by the widely celebrated holiday in honor of Princess Kartini. At the beginning of the 20th century. This Javanese princess initiated the movement for the emancipation of Indonesian women in accordance with the demands of the times.
D) Youth. The youth actively participated in guerrilla warfare in the jungle and in various battles, in particular in the defense of Surabaya. It is no coincidence that many main avenues and famous architectural structures in cities they have names such as Ute Street (Youth Street) or Ute Hall (Youth Hall). The main political parties have their own youth organizations. Student support for the army helped crush the communist coup in the mid-1960s and eased Suharto's rise to power. Then in the 1970s, young people took a broad front against Suharto. In the 1980s, attempts were made to dampen student political activism, but it flared up again in the next decade, becoming a major factor in Suharto's resignation.
E) Trade union movement. Trade unions have been active since the emergence of the Indonesian labor movement in 1908. In the early 1990s, the only legally recognized trade union center was the government-controlled All Indonesian Workers' Union (AIWU), formed in February 1973 by retired army officers after the collapse of the independent trade union movement. Newly formed independent trade union in 1990 Setia Kavan(Solidarity) was banned by the government three years later. The number of strikes in Indonesia grew markedly from around 1985, and reached a peak in 1994, when the workers in the city of Medan in northern Sumatra, organized by a trade union, were especially massive. "Prosperity". In total, over a thousand strikes took place between 1990 and 1995. After Suharto's resignation in 1998, Indonesia ratified the International Labor Organization (ILO) convention guaranteeing workers' right to organize.
G) Social security. According to labor laws, Indonesia has a 7-hour workday with a 40-hour work week. A weekly day off is guaranteed. Legislation regulates and establishes standards for child and female labor, working conditions and duration. Women have the right to three months of maternity leave. Women's work in hazardous work, night shifts, and the work of children under 14 years of age are prohibited. Enterprises are required to pay full or partial wages in case of illness and provide free medical care, pay full compensation for accidents at work, as well as a pension for complete disability. There are public and private pension funds. In practice, labor laws are violated everywhere - the working hours are not respected, child labor is used and discrimination against women occurs. The practice of hiring temporary workers instead of permanent ones is widespread. To resolve labor conflicts, forced state arbitration is provided.
7.Culture:
A) Cultural influences. The Malay-Polynesian origin of the country's indigenous population is evidenced by the high social status women and the symbolic meaning attached to boats. As a result of the collective creative efforts of the various peoples who came to the archipelago, a layering of different cultures occurred. Hinduism and Buddhism, which came to the islands primarily from India and from the 8th century, consistently had their influence. Successfully established in Java and Bali; Islam, introduced in the 14th century. From the Middle East by merchants and preachers; European traditions that were introduced by the Portuguese in the 16th century. And then by the Dutch until the beginning of the 19th century.
B) Music and dance. An example of the combination of Hindu influence and local tradition is the famous Javanese shadow theater (wayang kulit), also popular in Bali. During the performance, the puppeteer (dalang) moves puppet figures made of buffalo skin in front of a white screen, onto which the light of an oil lamp is directed. The dolls are clearly visible against the background of the screen, and their shadows are on the screen itself. The wayang kulit performance, which lasts all night, is not only a performance, but also a kind of ritual performance. Acting out scenes from Indian epics Ramayana And Mahabharata serves to glorify the gods, pacify the spirits and enrich the souls of the audience. It is believed that the ancient art of wayang kulit could have originated in China or South India, but most likely it arose in Indonesia. According to some estimates, there are 40 times more puppet troupes per person in Java than in the United States, and, of course, this ratio is no less in Bali. In Java, in addition, there is a theater of three-dimensional wooden puppets - Wayang Golek, a theater of masked actors - Wayang Topeng and actors without masks - Wayang Wong, in which live dancers skillfully imitate the clumsy movements of puppets. In addition to its own varieties of puppet theatre, Bali traditionally performs dances such as kecak (monkey) or kris (dagger), depicting a duel between a witch and a dragon. It should be added that the orchestra is also popular on both islands gamelan, consisting of local percussion instruments, a string rebab, a local plucked string instrument and bamboo flutes. In Bali such orchestras prefer fast rhythms, while in Java they prefer smooth melodies.
B) Literature. At the beginning of the 20th century. Modern Indonesian literature emerged and began to develop, closely connected with the national liberation movement. The publishing house “Baley Pustaka” (“House of Literature”), founded by the colonial government in 1908, still continues to operate. In 1933, three young writers from Sumatra - Sutan Takdir Alishahban, Armine Pane and Amir Hamzah, who sought to express the spiritual world of their country in literary form, began to publish a small-circulation literary, artistic and socio-political magazine "Pujanga Baru" ("New Writer"). The works that were published by the Balei Pustaka publishing house and the Pujanga Baru magazine often depicted the problems of young Indonesians whose path to freedom and progress was blocked by family traditions and ancestral remnants. After the fall of the colonial regime, Indonesian literature experienced sharp turn associated with the emergence of a new literary movement - Generation 1945. Influenced by memories of the years of Japanese occupation, came the caustic prose of Idrus (1921-1971), the passionate poetry of Khairil Anwar (1922-1949) and the magnificent memoirs of Pramudhya Ananta Tur - Human world (1980), Son of all nations (1980), Footprints(1985) and Glass House(1988), combined into a tetralogy Buru Quartet. For many years these works, incl. written by Anant Tura during his imprisonment on Buru Island and then under house arrest in Jakarta, were banned in Indonesia. The work of Romo Mangun was received no less coolly by the official authorities of Indonesia. Weaver bird(1991), which won the Southeast Asian Writers' Prize.
D) Fine arts. Indonesia maintains certain traditions in contemporary fine arts. The works of the first masters (S. Sujoyono, A. Jaya, K. Affandi, H. Ngantung, B. Resobovo) were imbued with national motifs. In 1937, the Association of Indonesian Artists (Persatuan Ahli Gambar Indonesia, Persagi) was created. In Java, the Academy of Fine Arts in Yogyakarta (now the Indonesian Art Institute) and the Department of Fine Arts at the Bandung University of Technology were opened in the 1950s. Painters from Bandung such as Popo Iskandar, Mokhtar Apin and Srihadi Sudarsono worked mainly in an abstract manner, while the paintings of Yogyakarta Academy graduates Affandi, Hendra and Sujoyono depicted in a realistic manner the daily life of the people, as well as scenes of the struggle for liberation of the country from Dutch colonial dependence. Later the style of social realism expressed in the image Everyday life with all its problems, was continued in the work of artists such as Joko Pekik, Hardy, Jim Supangket, Dedi Eri Supriya, Haris Purnama, Bonyong Munni Ardi and other representatives of the New Art Movement (Gerakan Seni Rupa Baru). In the 1960s, the Jakarta Institute of Art Education and fine arts departments in some teacher training institutes opened. On the island of Bali in the city of Ubud there is a famous Academy of Painting and Carving. Indonesian Muslim artists, such as A.F. Pirous, created many paintings based on scenes from the Koran.
D) Theater and cinema. Modern theater originated in the early 20th century. And it was represented mainly by school and amateur troupes with their style close to both European and traditional theater. Indonesian drama of this period is associated with the names of such writers as Rustam Effendi, Mohammad Yamin, Sanusi Pane and Armine Pane. After the Second World War and the struggle for independence, many studio theaters arose on the basis of student troupes, headed by such masters as Usmar Ismail, whose productions were dominated not only by the works of famous European playwrights, but also by Indonesian authors, whose work was imbued with ideas of social protest and national revival. The most famous theater groups in Indonesia today are: Kechil Theater(Communal Theater; director Arifin S. Nur), Mandiri Theater(Independent theater; directed by Putu Vijaya), Populer Theater(Popular theatre; director Teguh Karya) and Bengkel Theater(Theater Workshop), created in 1967 by the famous poet and playwright Rendra. Plays on local themes are often performed, sometimes accompanied by a gamelan orchestra and elements of traditional theater (puppets, masks, etc.). In the last decade, street theater, which was popular in the post-war years, has again developed.
E) Education. Access local population education during the colonial period was limited. The literacy rate of Indonesians by 1940 was only 6%. Since independence, the state has made a huge contribution to the development of education. In 1950, the law on general education was adopted. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the country successfully invested heavily in primary school. Since 1978, education has become compulsory and free for children aged 7 to 12 years. In 1997, up to 95% of children aged 7-12 years old, 77% - 13-15 years old and 48% - 16-18 years old - attended school. Primary education system in the beginning. 21st century Covered 82% of girls and 97% of boys of school age, secondary education - 56% of girls and 58% of boys. Only 10% of the population over 10 years of age did not complete primary school and remained illiterate. The literacy rate among the population over 15 years of age in 2004 was 88.5%, incl. among women 84.1%, men 93%. Higher education received 16% of the country's citizens.
G) Science. The main institution carrying out scientific work, including planning scientific research, publishing scientific literature and holding scientific and practical conferences, is Indonesian Institute of Scientific Research(Lembaga ilmu pengatahuan Indonesia, LIPI), located in Jakarta. The leading place in financing technical developments belongs to Agency for Technical Development and Implementation, which was headed by B.Y. Habibie (President of Indonesia in 1998–1999). The largest libraries are located in Bandung, Bogor, Jakarta and Yogyakarta. In total, there are about 20 large libraries and archives in Indonesia: the National Library (founded in 1980, 750 thousand volumes) and the National Archives of the Republic of Indonesia (founded in 1892, both in Jakarta), National Museum Library (over 400 thousand volumes, Jakarta ), National Library of Agricultural Sciences (founded in 1842, Bogor, 400 thousand volumes), Library of Political and Social History (founded in 1952, Jakarta, over 65 thousand volumes), Parliamentary Library (Jakarta, 200 thousand volumes) , Library of the Indonesian Institute of Scientific Research (founded in 1965, Jakarta, 100 thousand tons), Literary Archive of H.B. Yassin (founded in 1976, Jakarta, 100 thousand storage units).
H) Museums. Among the most famous are National Museum in Jakarta, the Zoological Museum in Bogor and the Geological Museum in Bandung. The National Museum was founded in 1778 on the basis of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, but was finally formed in 1862, when the museum and library of the Batavian Society were housed in a new building in Jakarta. The museum has a significant collection of works of Indonesian culture, organizes exhibitions and hosts large research work. Among the capital's museums, we can note the Museum of National History (founded in 1975), the Jakarta History Museum (founded in 1974), the Wayang Museum (founded in 1975), the Museum of Fine Arts (founded in 1976), the Textile Museum (founded in 1976), the Museum of the Sea (founded in 1977) and the Abri Satria Mandala Armed Forces Museum (founded in 1972). Well known park Taman Mini Indonesia(“Beautiful Indonesia in Miniature”, founded in 1980), the exhibitions of which tell about the culture and life of the peoples inhabiting Indonesia.
I) Sports. The development of sports is coordinated by the National Sports Committee of Indonesia (KONI) and the National Olympic Committee. Indonesia has developed sports such as boxing, badminton, volleyball, swimming, archery, field hockey, weightlifting and athletics. Football is very popular, and recently tennis has developed. Some traditional sports are also common, such as martial arts (pencak silat, ujungan, kateda) or bull racing (kerapan sapi). The country is a regular participant (since 1952) in the Olympic Games and Asian Games, as well as the Southeast Asian Games. Indonesian athletes received their first medal at the Olympic Games in 1988 (Seoul). Indonesian athletes showed their best results at the Olympic Games in badminton, both in singles and team events.
K) Holidays. Only official and national holidays have a fixed date. Of the secular holidays declared as holidays, Indonesia celebrates New Year(January 1) and Independence Day (August 17). Most holidays are religious, their dates are determined according to the lunar calendars: Hijri (Muslim) and Shaka (Hindu-Buddhist). Main Muslim holidays: Idul Adha, Nyepi, Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad, Muharram, Vesak, Ascension of the Prophet Muhammad, Idulfitr (at the end of the fast of the month of Ramadan). Christmas (December 25), Easter and Chinese New Year are also celebrated. In addition, many other non-weekend holidays are celebrated by various religious, national and professional groups.
8.Flag:
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Area - 1,919,440 sq. km
Population -189136000
Capital - Jakarta (6,504,000)
Another major city is Surabaya (2,028,000)
Highest point - Mount Puncak Jaya (5,030 m)
Official language- Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia)
Main religions - Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism
Currency - Indonesian rupiah
Main export items - oil, liquefied natural gas, timber, rubber, coffee
Form of government - multi-party republic
Indonesia occupies the world's largest archipelago, consisting of more than 13,600 mountainous islands with many active volcanoes. This seismic danger zone Geologists call it the Pacific Belt of Fire. Indonesia has seen some of the most powerful famous history volcanic eruptions. However, people continue to live near smoking volcanoes because volcanic ash enriches and fertilizes the soil. The climate here is humid and warm, with abundant seasonal rains. The islands have many clear lakes, coastal mangroves and picturesque tropical forests. Here you can find rafflesia - the largest flower in the world (up to 1 meter in diameter), bright orange in color, with an unpleasant odor that attracts insects. The forests are home to rare animals, including rhinoceroses and tigers. The country receives its main income from agriculture, forestry and fishing. In the seas of Indonesia, mackerel, anchovy, tuna, as well as pearls and shells are caught. For a long time, merchants and pirates came to the islands for spices - pepper, cloves and nutmeg, which are grown here to this day. In addition, the country exports coffee, rubber, tobacco and oil. Indonesia has deposits of copper, nickel and coal. In the 60s, the development of oil fields began here, which brought significant income to the country.
POPULATION AND HISTORY
Apparently, the first inhabitants of the islands were people from mainland Malaysia. Since the 8th century, these islands, teeming with herbs and located at the crossroads of important trade routes, have attracted sailors from different countries peace. Indian merchants brought Hinduism to the islands, and Arab traders brought Islam. In the 16th-17th centuries, the Portuguese and the British tried to capture the islands, but the Dutch succeeded in doing so in 1798. During the period of Dutch rule, the islands united in the struggle for independence, and in 1945 Indonesia was declared a republic. One of the main political forces of the state was the army, which crushed the communist uprising in 1965. In 1976, the eastern part of the island of Timor was annexed to Indonesia. The first president of sovereign Indonesia was Ahmed Tsukarno, who instilled in Indonesians a genuine sense of national pride. After the military coup, General Suharto came to power in the country, whose rule was distinguished by political and religious tolerance.
Most of the islanders are engaged in agriculture. The daily life of the Indonesian people combines Buddhist, Hindu and folk customs, although for the most part Indonesians practice Islam. Each island lives according to its own traditions.
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Indonesia (indon. Indonesia), official name- The Republic of Indonesia (Indian: Republik Indonesia) is a state in Southeast Asia. The population, according to the results of the 2010 census, is more than 237.5 million people (according to estimates as of July 2011 - more than 245.6 million people), the territory is 1,919,440 km?, by both of these indicators it is the largest country in the region. It ranks fourth in the world in terms of population and fourteenth in terms of territory.
The capital is Jakarta. The official language is Indonesian.
Unitary state, presidential republic. It is divided into 34 administrative-territorial units, 32 of which are provinces and 2 are special districts, equal in status to provinces.
Located on the islands of the Malay Archipelago and the western part of the island of New Guinea. Washed by the waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is the largest island state in the world. A significant part of the islands belongs to the Sunda Islands, which in turn are divided into the Greater Sunda and Lesser Sunda Islands. It has land borders with Malaysia (on the island of Kalimantan), Papua New Guinea (on the island of New Guinea) and East Timor (on the island of Timor).
It is distinguished by significant ethnocultural diversity. About 88% of the population is Muslim, making Indonesia the country with the largest Muslim population in the world.
An agrarian-industrial country with a dynamically developing economy. The volume of GDP at purchasing power parity for 2011 amounted to 1.125 trillion US dollars (about 4,700 US dollars per capita). The currency is the Indonesian rupiah.
The country's independence was declared on August 17, 1945. In 1942-1945, it was under Japanese occupation, and before that it was a colonial possession of the Netherlands, which began its development in the first half of the 17th century and united most of the territory of modern Indonesia under their rule by the beginning of the 20th century.
Population. According to the results of the national census conducted in May - June 2010, the population of Indonesia was 237,556,363 people, and according to estimates derived from the calculation of the current population growth rate, by July 2011 its number increased to 245,613,043 people. Indonesia is therefore the most populous country in Southeast Asia and has the fourth largest population in the world.
The average population density is (based on the 2010 census) about 124 people per km2, and the population is extremely unevenly distributed: 57.5% of Indonesians live on Java, which makes up less than 7% of the territory, making it one island from the most densely populated places on the planet (more than 1000 people per km?). The lowest density is on the Moluccas - 0.8% of the population (34 people per km?). Among the administrative-territorial units, the highest population density is registered in the Special Capital District - more than 14,400 people per km?, the lowest - in the province of Papua - less than 8 people per km?.
To ensure a more even distribution of the population throughout the country, since the 1950s, the Indonesian authorities have been implementing a large-scale transmigration program - relocating residents of densely populated areas (Java, Madura, Bali) to sparsely populated islands (Kalimantan, New Guinea, the Moluccas). As part of this program, by the beginning of the 2000s, at least 5.5 million people were resettled, of which almost half were resettled in the 1970s and 1980s.
The share of the urban population is 44%. As of 2010, 11 cities have populations of more than 1 million, the largest of which is the capital Jakarta with a population of 9,607,787.
Growth rates, age and gender structure. Over the entire period of Indonesia's independent development, it was characterized by fairly high population growth, which has decreased slightly since the 1980s as a result of the implementation of the state family planning program. According to estimates for 2011, the population growth rate was 1.069% (110th in the world) with a birth rate of 18.1 (104th in the world) and a mortality rate of 6.1 (155th in the world). According to the forecasts of relevant UN experts, in the coming decades the population growth rate in Indonesia will gradually decline and, reaching its maximum in 2055 (295 million people), the population of Indonesia will begin to decrease (Table 1.).
Table 1. Population growth dynamics in Indonesia
The age structure of the population is typical for developing countries: the main feature is the high proportion of young people - the average age of an Indonesian resident is 28 years. 27.3% of Indonesians are under 15 years of age, 66.5% are aged 15-65 years and 6.1% are over 65 years of age.
The gender composition of the population is almost equal, the sex ratio is 1.01 in favor of men. Changes in this indicator in different age groups generally correspond to the global trend: 1.05 at birth, 1.04 for persons under 15 years of age, 1.01 for those aged 15 to 64 years, and 0.79 for those over 65 years of age. At the same time, its fluctuations in different regions countries: if in the provinces of Papua and West Papua it is 1.12-1.13, then in the province of the Western Lesser Sunda Islands it is 0.94.
Economy. The monetary unit is the Indonesian rupiah (Indonesian Rupiah), the average rate for 2010 is 9170 rupees per 1 US dollar. The unit of exchange is the sen (Indon. sen), one hundredth of a rupee. Money issuance is carried out by the country's central bank - Bank Indonesia.
The inflation rate at the end of 2011 was 5.4% (140th place in the world). The volume of national gold and foreign exchange reserves as of July 2011 amounted to 122.7 billion US dollars.
The economy, given its market nature, is characterized by an active role of the state: it owns approximately 140 large enterprises in various sectors of the national economy, and also controls prices for a number of goods, including basic food products and fuels and lubricants. In terms of GDP, the share of industrial production in 2010 is 47%, the service sector - 37.6%, and agriculture - 15.4%. At the same time, 12.8% are employed in industry, 38.3% in agriculture, and 48.9% of the working population in the service sector. The total working-age population is 116.5 million people (5th place in the world), the unemployment rate is 7.1% (70th place in the world).
The population is characterized by significant socio-economic stratification, with the income of the top 10% being almost 11 times higher than the income of the bottom 10% of Indonesians. More than 13% live below the poverty level.
Corruption is a serious economic problem - according to rankings compiled by Tranparency International, Indonesia long time ranks at the beginning of the second hundred.
Industry. In 2010, the share of industrial production in the structure of GDP was 47%, more than two-thirds of this volume is accounted for by manufacturing industries. At the same time, the number of people employed in industry is relatively small - less than 13% of the working population. The growth rate is noticeably lower than for the economy as a whole - about 4.3% in 2010.
In 2009, more than 25 thousand enterprises with the status of large or medium-sized enterprises and more than 3.2 million small enterprises and home-based producers were registered in the manufacturing sector. The most significant industries are the food industry (about 19% of all non-primary production, almost 6,000 large and medium-sized events), the chemical industry (16%, about 900 enterprises), the textile industry (7%, about 2,000 enterprises), the tobacco industry (7%, more than 1600 enterprises), production of machinery and equipment (7%, about 600 enterprises), automotive industry (6%, more than 270 enterprises), pulp and paper industry (6%, more than 530 enterprises), production of ready-made clothing (4%, more 2000 enterprises). Most small enterprises and cottage industries operate in various branches of the light and food industries, including traditional crafts: the production of batik, ceramics, weaving mats, the production of wood and bone carvings, and other popular souvenir products.
The mining industry is dominated by large national companies, a significant part of which are state-owned, as well as Western resource corporations. The largest of the national companies is the state monopoly Pertamina, which controls oil production and refining.
Oil production (as of 2009) amounted to more than 1.02 million barrels per day (37th place in the world), natural gas - 85.7 billion cubic meters per year (8th place in the world). Also, all mineral resources listed in the section “Relief, inland waters, minerals, soils.”
Foreign trade and foreign investment. The volume of foreign trade in 2010 amounted to 285.3 billion US dollars with a positive balance of 31.1 billion dollars. The volume of exports was 158.2 billion dollars, imports were 127.1 billion dollars (for both indicators - 30- e place in the world).
The main export items are gas, oil, electrical equipment, textiles, wood, plywood, and rubber. The main imports are machinery and equipment, oil, chemical and oil refining products, and certain types of food. At the same time, since the mid-2000s, the volume of imported oil has increasingly exceeded the volume of exported oil - this was the reason for Indonesia's exit in 2008 from OPEC, which it had been a member of since 1962.
The volume of foreign direct investment in the Indonesian economy in 2010 is about $85.6 billion (38th place in the world). Indonesian investors have placed more than $33 billion abroad (37th place in the world).
Having studied the economic and geographical characteristics of Indonesia, we can draw the following conclusion: the economic and geographical position of Indonesia is quite favorable, however, there are a number of problems there. Indonesia's economic development is complicated by many remnants of its colonial past. Indonesia continues to remain an underdeveloped country with relatively low industrial potential. The absence of major manufacturing industries has created a constant need to import industrial equipment and consumer goods. All this predetermined Indonesia's dependence on foreign markets.
Area - 1919.4 thousand km2.
Population - 206.1 (2001) million people.
The capital is Jakarta (8.8 million people).
Territory and geographical location. Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia by area and one of the largest island countries in the world. In terms of territory size, it ranks 13th in the world.
Indonesia is located on more than 13.5 thousand islands of the Malay Archipelago, which stretches along the equator between Indochina and Australia. The Malay archipelago consists of a group of Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands. Indonesia includes the Moluccas, as well as the western part of the island of New Guinea (Irian Jaya) and the adjacent islands. 2/3 of the country's territory is occupied by the Greater Sunda Islands (Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi and Java).
Composition of the territory of Indonesia
Islands
Area, thousand km2
Share of country area,%
Greater Sunda Islands:
1331,4
69,37
Kalimantan (except northern part)
539,5
Sumatra
473,6
Sulawesi
189,0
Lesser Sunda Islands:
92,51
4,82
Flores
15,2
Sumbawa
15,5
Sumba
11,2
Bali
5,6
Lombok
5,4
Moluccas Islands:
74,9
4,35
Irian Jaya (western New Guinea)
412,8
21,46
How island country, Indonesia has predominantly maritime boundaries. The shores are washed by two oceans and 13 seas. In the northwest, the Strait of Malacca separates it from Malaysia and Singapore, in the northeast from the Philippines, the Sulawesi Sea, and in the southeast, the Timor and Arafura Seas - from Australia. Indonesia's land borders are with Malaysia (on Kalimantan Island) and Papua New Guinea (on New Guinea Island).
Natural conditions and resources. The relief of Indonesia is highly dissected and is characterized by a combination of mountainous and flat areas. Most of the surface of the islands is mountainous. The mountains have steep slopes and considerable height. The most high peak country, Jaya (5029 m.) is located in the western part of the island. New Guinea.
Along the coast of the seas and river valleys stretch areas of alluvial plains. They occupy the largest areas in eastern Sumatra, southern Kalimantan and western New Guinea. A significant part of the lowlands is swampy. Swamps are a serious obstacle to the economic development of the territory.
Indonesia is an area of active volcanic and seismic activity. There are more than 500 volcanoes in the archipelago, of which about 100 are active. Volcanic eruptions, which are often accompanied by earthquakes, cause great damage to the economy.
The mountainous terrain affects the level of economic development of the territory and complicates transport connections. Fertile mountain valleys and gentle mountain slopes are the most developed and favorable for agriculture. The mountains contain significant mineral reserves.
Minerals. The component structure of Indonesia's mineral resources is quite diverse, although its subsoil has not yet been fully explored.
The largest reserves are fuel and energy resources, especially oil, the deposits of which are estimated at 1.2 billion tons, almost 2/3 of the total reserves of Southeast Asia. Sumatra is especially rich in oil, East Coast Kalimantan, the northern coast of Java and offshore fields in the Java Sea. On the east coast of Sumatra is one of the richest oil fields in Asia and the country's largest oil field. Natural gas reserves are estimated at 865 billion m3, which is 1/3 of the subregion's total reserves. Almost all of them are located within oil-bearing regions.
Coal reserves are small. Its main deposits are located in Sumatra. Low quality coal. There are significant reserves of brown coal in Kalimantan. Other fuel and energy resources include uranium and peat.
Indonesia stands out for its tin reserves, which are estimated at 1 million tons. Almost all the main tin deposits are located on the islands of Bangui, Belatung and Sinkep, which are often called the “tin islands”. In terms of tin reserves, the country ranks third in the world and second in the subregion (after Malaysia).
The country has relatively large bauxite deposits. According to their reserves, which are estimated at 150 million tons, Indonesia ranks second in Southeast Asia. They have a high alumina content, and their development is carried out mainly by open-pit mining. Reserves of other metal ores are small. The main iron ore reserves are concentrated in Sulawesi. Reserves of manganese, nickel, cobalt and copper were discovered.
There are reserves of gold and silver in Sumatra, and diamonds in Kalimantan. The country also has sulfur, phosphorites and other minerals.
Climate resources. The territory of Indonesia is located in the equatorial and subequatorial climate zones. Seasonality of climate manifests itself only within the subequatorial belt and is associated with changes in monsoon winds. Most of the country's territory lies within the equatorial climate zone. Lowland areas with an equatorial climate are characterized by high temperatures throughout the year - +24 ° ... 26 ° C. Only in the mountains the temperature drops to + 15 ° C. Precipitation falls evenly throughout the year in the form of showers. In flat areas, on average, up to 2000 mm falls per year, and in the mountains - up to 4000 mm. The wettest place is in the western part of the island. Sumatra, where more than 6000 mm falls per year. precipitation. The least precipitation is in the Palu Valley in the southwest of the island. Sulawesi - up to 500 mm. in year.
Within the subequatorial climate, only the eastern coast of the island is located. Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands. This region is characterized by high temperatures throughout the year and a pronounced alternation of two seasons: wet and dry. On average, up to 1000 mm falls on the plains per year. precipitation, and in the mountains - up to 2000 mm. The dry season lasts from May to October.
In most areas, the climate is favorable for human life, especially at an altitude of 500 to 1000 m. These areas also have the highest population density.
Climatic conditions are favorable for the development of agriculture. The upper limit of agricultural activity in a large part of the country is at an altitude of above 2000 m above sea level. High temperatures throughout the year make it possible to harvest 2-3 crops from one field.
Soil resources. The soil cover of Indonesia is dominated by lateritic soils, formed under conditions of high humidity and constant high temperatures. In areas with seasonal moisture, red soils are common. Significant areas are occupied by meadow and alluvial-meadow soils. These soils are waterlogged and require reclamation work. Heavy rains reduce soil fertility, but river sediments and volcanic activity restore it. A significant part of the soil cover is subject to erosion as a result of intensive deforestation.
Water resources. There are many years in Indonesia, but their length is short. Largest river- Kapuas flows on the island. Kalimantan.
Most years are full of water throughout the year. Seasonal fluctuations in flow are observed in areas with a monsoon climate. During the wet season, rivers often overflow their banks, during the dry season they become shallow, and some dry up.
Indonesia's rivers have multifunctional significance. In off-road conditions, they serve as means of communication and are used for rafting timber, for irrigation and fishing. Hydropower resources, according to various estimates, range from 10 to 15 million kW.
Rivers also bring natural disasters when they overflow during the rains. Stormy floods - Banjara - are especially dangerous. To protect the elements, dams are built along the banks of many rivers.
Numerous lakes are small. More - Lake Toba in Sumatra.
Forest resources. Indonesia has the largest forest area in Southeast Asia. Forests cover 59.7% of the country's territory. Forest cover is high in Kalimantan, Sumatra and Irian Jaya, and low in Java.
The species composition of forests is very diverse. The most common are moist evergreen forests, which occupy 2/3 of the forested area. Many tree species have valuable wood and edible fruits. Monsoon deciduous forests grow in the southeast of the country. Teak and eucalyptus forests are especially prized. Mangrove forests grow on the coast. their wood is used mainly for fuel.
Bamboo is harvested for local needs. Tree species that have durable and beautiful wood are exported. A significant part of the wood is lost due to difficult transportation conditions.
Intensive deforestation leads to increased soil erosion. The country is developing measures aimed at reforesting some areas.
Population. The ethnic composition of the Indonesian population is very diverse. The country is home to about 300 ethnic groups and 16 major nationalities.
Anthropologically, the majority of the population belongs to the southern branch of the Mongoloid race. The largest peoples include the Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, and Malays. They make up 2/3 of the country's total population and speak languages belonging to the Malayo-Polynesian language family. In the extreme east of the country live Papuan peoples belonging to the Australoid race. Among the representatives of non-indigenous peoples, Chinese, Indians, Japanese, Arabs and Europeans predominate.
The official language is Indonesian.
In terms of population, Indonesia is one of the largest countries in the world. In mid-2000, 206.1 million people lived on its territory (fourth place in the world). Every year the country's population grows by 3-4 million people. Over the past ten years, the average population growth rate was 1.8% per year, and in the late 90s it dropped to 1.4%.
Population growth occurs mainly due to natural increase. External migrations did not have a significant impact either on the formation of the modern ethnic composition of the population or on the dynamics of its numbers. During 1930-1995, the country's population grew 3.2 times.
In the late 1990s, the birth rate in Indonesia was 24 per 1,000 inhabitants and the death rate was 7 per 1,000 inhabitants. The main reason for the high natural increase was the reduction in mortality, especially among children. Indonesia's infant mortality rate - 64 children per 1,000 births - is in line with the world average.
The age structure of the population is dominated by young age groups. Children under 14 years old make up 31.0% of the total population, and people over 65 years old make up only 4.0%. The average life expectancy for men is 65 years, for women - 70 years.
The young age structure of the population has caused a decrease in the share of the economically active population - about 40%. In the sectoral structure, there is a high share of those employed in agriculture - 45% and a low share of those employed in industry - 11%. Unemployment rate - 5.5% (1998). This figure is especially high in Java, where 2/3 of the economically active population is concentrated.
The average population density is 110 people per km2 (2000). According to this indicator, the country ranks 69th in the world. The highest population density on the island. Java - 813 people per km2, and the least populated island. Irian Jaya - 4 people per km2. The country has developed a program for the migration of residents from the island. Java to other islands.
The majority of Indonesia's population lives in rural areas. The country is characterized by so-called false urbanization, in which the growth of the urban population is caused mainly by agricultural overpopulation, and not by industrial development. In the mid-90s, 32% of the population lived in cities. The level of urbanization in Java is particularly high, which is explained by the presence of large cities here. Of the six millionaire cities in the country, four are located on this island. The largest city in Indonesia is Jakarta, which is home to 8.8 million people (1996). The cities of Surabaya and Bandung each have more than 2 million inhabitants. About 10% of the country's total population lives in cities with a population of over a million. Big cities located mainly on the coast of the islands.
More than 80% of the population professes Islam, predominantly Sunni. The second largest and largest religion is Christianity. Protestants predominate among Christians. Other religions include Hinduism and Buddhism. Some small nations adhere to traditional beliefs.
Features of development and general characteristics of the economy. The first states on the territory of modern Indonesia arose at the beginning of our era.
Before the arrival of Europeans, Java and some other islands reached a fairly high level for that time economic development. They carried on brisk trade with China, India and the countries of the Middle East. The main item of their trade were spices, which were grown in the Moluccas.
From the end of the 16th century. The colonization of Indonesia began - first by the Portuguese and then by the Dutch. For more than 350 years, until World War II, Indonesia was a Dutch colony.
During this period, the pace of economic development was very slow. In addition to traditional crops that have long been cultivated in the country (spices, rice), new crops were introduced that were in demand on the world market. For example, at the beginning of the 18th century. The Dutch brought the coffee tree to the country. For a long time, coffee, sugar cane, and from the beginning of the 20th century. - Hevea were one of the most profitable crops.
The agrarian reform of 1870 freed peasants from the forced cultivation of cash crops and assigned them the plots they were cultivating at that time. The remainder of the land was transferred to Europeans to organize plantation farming. Indonesian agriculture has developed into two main sectors: the large plantation economy of foreign monopolies and the small-scale peasant economy of Indonesians. The main plantation area was Java. From the beginning of the 20th century. The area under plantations expanded in Sumatra and Kalimantan.
At the end of the 19th century. The mining industry began to develop, especially tin and oil mining. They became important exports of the country and a source of large profits for monopolies. In the pre-war period, Indonesia provided 3.2% of world oil production.
However, the main object of exploitation and source of foreign capital inflow in Indonesia was agriculture.
During World War II, Indonesia was occupied by Japan. The Japanese expanded the plantings of rice (for the army), cotton, frame and other fiber crops.
The Japanese occupation disrupted the country's historically established external economic ties and paralyzed its economic life. This led to the decline of important agricultural sectors.
In August 1945, the Indonesian Republic was proclaimed, which was suppressed in the fall of 1945 as a result of armed aggression from Holland. Only in 1949 did Holland recognize the independence of Indonesia.
In the early 50s of the XX century. The restoration of the economy, destroyed during the years of Japanese occupation and Dutch intervention, began. In 1959, the President of the Republic, Sukarno, proclaimed a concept, the essence of which was to strengthen the role of the state in economic life. The country carried out the nationalization of Dutch enterprises. By 1965, the country was developing under the slogan of "Indonesian socialism", which led it to an economic crisis.
In 1965, a coup d'etat took place in Indonesia, a military dictatorship and a "new order" regime were established. Since the late 60s, the country has proclaimed an “open model” of the economy, which provided for the widespread attraction of foreign capital. The new government began to denationalize the economy. A long-term economic development program for 30 years (1970-2000) was adopted. Its main task was to rebuild the structure of the economy and increase the level of socio-economic development of the country.
In 20 years, Indonesia has overcome the economic crisis. There have been positive quantitative and qualitative transformations in the structure of GDP, which have changed the nature of the economy from agrarian-raw materials to agrarian-industrial. In the mid-1990s, the industrial sector of the economy produced 40% of the country's GDP. In terms of GDP, which is estimated at $850 billion (in PPP national currencies, 2000), Indonesia ranks first in Southeast Asia. It accounts for a third of the subregion's economic potential. However, in terms of socio-economic development it is only in sixth place. The GDP per capita here is only $4,100, which is almost three times less than the same figure in the region.
The country's economic development strategy for a long time was based on natural resources and agricultural products. Economic policy ensured high GDP growth rates. For example, if in the 60s they did not exceed 3.5% per year, then in the 70s they already reached 7.8%.
High rates of economic growth were observed in 1980, when they reached 9.8%. They decreased significantly in the 80s, and in the early 90s they increased again to 6.5%.
The level of industrial development and the rate of its growth were determined by the development of the mining industry, especially oil production. Modern industries developed on the basis of imported capital and the latest technology.
Industry is developing at a faster pace compared to other sectors of the economy. As a result, the share of industry in GDP creation increased to 35% (2000). The priority sectors are those that process local raw materials, ensure the development of agriculture and produce products that replace imports.
The sectoral structure of industry is dominated by the mining industry, which produces 2/3 of the total gross industrial output. Until 1973, the manufacturing industry dominated in terms of the value of gross output. Higher oil prices have led to a change in the relationship between the mining and manufacturing industries.
Indonesia's mining industry is deeply integrated into the global economy. It provides raw materials for the development of the manufacturing industry and is an important source of foreign exchange earnings.
In the sectoral structure of the mining industry, the leading place is occupied by the fuel industry.