Geography - definition, history, major branches and scientific disciplines. Geographical terms and concepts. Geographical Definitions Important Geographical Information
Current state geodesy
The beginning of modern fifth period The development of geodesy coincides with the launch of the first artificial Earth satellites (AES). The emergence of satellites opened up new opportunities for solving scientific and practical problems of geodesy and marked the beginning of space geodesy. A striking example of this is the emergence of global positioning systems GPS and GLONASS. The parameters of the global ellipsoid were determined from satellite measurements.
An important scientific and technical achievement that literally revolutionized the processes of performing geodetic work is the emergence of computer technology. Their use allowed:
Create automated geodetic instruments, which increases labor productivity and reliability of measurement results;
Quickly mathematically process large volumes of geodetic measurement results;
Store large amounts of geodetic data in databases and quickly access them;
Present geodetic data in computer graphics formats that are convenient for consumers of geodetic data and solve their specific problems.
From geography we know that: The Earth is a sphere, almost two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is covered with water. The surface itself is uneven. There are plains and mountains, both on land and under water (Fig. 31).
Rice. 31. Physical surface of the Earth
The highest mountain is located in Tibet. This is Chomolungma (Everest), 8848 meters above sea level. The deepest ocean trench is the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. Its depth is 10994 meters below sea level. Thus, the maximum difference in landforms on the planet is less than 19 km.
There are 6 continents in total on Earth (Eurasia, North America, South America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica) and 4 oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic)
Rice. 32. Geographic map
The entire surface of the Earth or part of it can be depicted in the form of a geographical map (Fig. 32).
To describe the position of objects on the Earth's surface, there is a system of geographic coordinates - latitudes and longitudes, measured in degrees and minutes of arc (Fig. 32).
To do this, meridians and parallels are drawn along the surface of the Earth.
Meridians go from pole to pole. Meridians are counted from the prime meridian - Greenwich to the east (eastern longitude) and west (western longitude). St. Petersburg is located on the meridian 30° east.
The change of day and night is caused by the fact that the Earth rotates around its axis, completing a full revolution in 24 hours. The next date starts at midnight. But on different meridians midnight comes at different time. If it is day in St. Petersburg, then in the USA it is night. It turns out that each meridian has its own time, which is called local time. For example, if in St. Petersburg there is 1 hour (1 h) of local time, then in Moscow it is approximately 1.5 h of local time. Local time is used, for example, in making astronomical observations. Under normal conditions, such time counting is inconvenient. Therefore, standard time is used everywhere, and in Russian Federation also maternity and summer.
Each revolution of the planet adds one day, that is, after standard (maternity, summer) time begins next date. To coordinate dates around the world established date line, which runs approximately along the 180º meridian. Therefore, if, for example, September 16 comes at midnight in Alaska, then 3 hours later, September 17 comes at midnight in Chukotka.
Parallels run parallel to the equator. Latitude is determined by parallels. Latitudes are counted both north (northern latitude) and south (south latitude) of the equator. Accordingly, the latitude of the North Pole is +90° N, the latitude of the South Pole is -90° S.
There are four specific parallels. Northern Tropic or the Tropic of Cancer - a parallel in which at noon on the day of the summer solstice on June 22, the Sun will be exactly at its zenith. It runs along the parallel 23º 27" N. South Tropic or the Tropic of Capricorn runs along the parallel 23º 27" S, respectively.
Arctic Circle- a parallel, north of which polar day and polar night can be observed. Its latitude is 66º 44" N, for Southern Arctic Circle - 66º 44" S respectively.
From a geographic map you can determine geographical coordinates any object depicted on it. For example, from a fragment of a geographical map in Figure 33, you can approximately determine the coordinates of St. Petersburg as follows: latitude 60° N, longitude 30° E.
Rice. 33. Fragment of a geographical map
In addition, using a geographic map, you can determine the height (depth) of a point above sea level.
The latitude and longitude of a point are inherently global (global), absolute coordinates. Often there is a need for a point to describe its position relative to another point. Such coordinates are called relative. Consider Figure 34.
Rice. 34. Relative coordinates of points
There are two points on the geographical map: point 1 And point 2 . The first coordinate is the distance S 1-2 , which is determined in a known way - the distance on the map is measured, for example, with a ruler and the distance on the ground is calculated based on the scale of the map.
The second coordinate is azimuth. To determine it, you need to:
Draw a line on the map connecting both points;
Draw lines of meridians of points on the map (“meridian point 1” and “meridian point 2”);
Using a protractor, measure the angles between the meridians and the line connecting the points; The angle is measured from the north direction of the meridian clockwise.
The measured angles are the azimuths. It is believed that for point 1 azimuth A 1-2 is direct, A A 2-1 - reverse. For point 2 - vice versa.
Race is a historically established group of people that has common physical features: skin, eye and hair color, eye shape, eyelid structure, head shape, and others. Previously, it was common to divide races into “black” (Blacks), yellow (Asians) and white (Europeans), but now this classification is considered outdated and incomplete.
The simplest modern division is not too different from the “color” division. According to it, there are 3 main or large races: Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid. Representatives of these three races have significant distinctive features.
Negroids are characterized by curly black hair, dark brown skin (sometimes almost black), brown eyes, strongly protruding jaws, a slightly protruding wide nose, and thick lips.
Caucasians typically have wavy or straight hair, relatively fair skin, varying eye colors, slightly protruding jaws, a narrow, prominent nose with a high bridge, and typically thin or medium lips.
Mongoloids have straight, coarse dark hair, yellowish skin tones, brown eyes, narrow eye shape, a flattened face with strongly prominent cheekbones, a narrow or medium-wide nose with a low bridge, and moderately thick lips.
In the expanded classification, it is customary to distinguish several more racial groups. For example, the Amerindian race (Indians, American race) is the indigenous population of the American continent. It is physiologically close to the Mongoloid race, however, the settlement of America began more than 20 thousand years ago, therefore, according to experts, it is incorrect to consider the Amerindians a branch of the Mongoloids.
Australoids (Australo-Oceanian race) are the indigenous population of Australia. An ancient race that had a huge range, limited to the regions: Hindustan, Tasmania, Hawaii, Kuril Islands. The appearance features of indigenous Australians - a large nose, beard, long wavy hair, massive eyebrows, powerful jaws - sharply distinguish them from Negroids.
Currently, there are few pure representatives of their races left. Mostly mestizos live on our planet - the result of a mixture of different races, which may have characteristics of different racial groups.
Time zones are conventionally defined parts of the Earth in which the same local time.
Before the introduction of standard time, each city used its own local time. solar time, depending on geographic longitude. However, it was very inconvenient, especially in terms of train schedules. The modern time zone system first appeared in North America at the end of the 19th century. In Russia it became widespread in 1917, and by 1929 it was accepted throughout the world.
For greater convenience (in order not to enter local time for each degree of longitude), the Earth's surface was conventionally divided into 24 time zones. The boundaries of time zones are determined not by meridians, but by administrative units (states, cities, regions). This is also done for greater convenience. When moving from one time zone to another, the minutes and seconds (time) are usually preserved; only in some countries, local time differs from world time by 30 or 45 minutes.
The Greenwich Observatory in the suburbs of London was taken as the reference point (prime meridian or belt). At the North and South Poles, the meridians converge at one point, so time zones are usually not observed there. Time at the poles is usually equated to universal time, although at polar stations it is sometimes kept in its own way.
GMT -12 - Date meridian
GMT -11 - o. Midway, Samoa
GMT -10 - Hawaii
GMT -9 - Alaska
GMT -8 - Pacific Time (USA and Canada), Tijuana
GMT -7 - Mountain Time, USA and Canada (Arizona), Mexico (Chihuahua, La Paz, Mazatlan)
GMT -6 - Central Time (USA and Canada), Central American Time, Mexico (Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey)
GMT -5 - Eastern Time (USA and Canada), South American Pacific Time (Bogota, Lima, Quito)
GMT -4 - Atlantic Time (Canada), South American Pacific Time (Caracas, La Paz, Santiago)
GMT -3 - South American Eastern Time (Brasilia, Buenos Aires, Georgetown), Greenland
GMT -2 - Middle Atlantic Time
GMT -1 - Azores, Cape Verde
GMT - Greenwich Time (Dublin, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London), Casablanca, Monrovia
GMT +1 - Central European Time (Amsterdam, Berlin, Bern, Brussels, Vienna, Copenhagen, Madrid, Paris, Rome, Stockholm), Belgrade, Bratislava, Budapest, Warsaw, Ljubljana, Prague, Sarajevo, Skopje, Zagreb), West Central African Time
GMT +2 - Eastern European Time (Athens, Bucharest, Vilnius, Kyiv, Chisinau, Minsk, Riga, Sofia, Tallinn, Helsinki, Kaliningrad), Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, South Africa
GMT +3 - Moscow time, East African Time (Nairobi, Addis Ababa), Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia
GMT +4 - Samara time, United United Arab Emirates, Oman, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia
GMT +5 - Ekaterinburg time, West Asian time (Islamabad, Karachi, Tashkent)
GMT +6 - Novosibirsk, Omsk time, Central Asian time (Bangladesh, Kazakhstan), Sri Lanka
GMT +7 - Krasnoyarsk time, Southeast Asia(Bangkok, Jakarta, Hanoi)
GMT +8 - Irkutsk time, Ulaanbaatar, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Taiwan, Western Australian time (Perth)
GMT +9 - Yakut time, Korea, Japan
GMT +10 - Vladivostok time, Eastern Australian time (Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Sydney), Tasmania, Western Pacific time (Guam, Port Moresby)
GMT +11 - Magadan time, Central Pacific time ( Solomon islands, New Caledonia)
GMT +12 - Wellington
A wind rose is a diagram that depicts the pattern of changes in wind directions and speeds in a certain place over a certain period of time. It got its name due to its rose-like pattern. The first wind roses were known even before our era.
It is assumed that the wind rose was invented by sailors who were trying to identify patterns of changes in winds depending on the time of year. She helped determine when to start sailing in order to get to a certain destination.
The diagram is constructed as follows: on those going from a common center to different directions The rays display the repeatability value (as a percentage) or wind speed. The rays correspond to the cardinal directions: north, west, east, south, northeast, north-northeast, etc. Currently, the wind rose is usually constructed using long-term data for a month, season, or year.
Clouds are classified using Latin words to define appearance clouds observed from the ground. The word cumulus is the definition of cumulus clouds, stratus - stratus clouds, cirrus - cirrus, nimbus - nimbus.
In addition to the type of clouds, the classification describes their location. Usually there are several groups of clouds, the first three of which are determined by their height above the ground. The fourth group consists of clouds of vertical development, and the last group includes clouds of mixed types.
Upper clouds are formed in temperate latitudes above 5 km, in polar latitudes - above 3 km, in tropical latitudes - above 6 km. The temperature at this altitude is quite low, so they consist mainly of ice crystals. The upper level clouds are usually thin and white. The most common forms of upper clouds are cirrus and cirrostratus, which can usually be seen in good weather.
Mid-level clouds usually located at an altitude of 2-7 km in temperate latitudes, 2-4 km in polar latitudes and 2-8 km in tropical latitudes. They consist mainly of small particles of water, but at low temperatures they can also contain ice crystals. The most common types of mid-level clouds are altocumulus (altocumulus), altostratus (altostratus). They may have shadowed parts, which distinguishes them from cirrocumulus clouds. This type of cloud usually occurs as a result of air convection, as well as the gradual rise of air ahead of a cold front.
Low clouds They are located at altitudes below 2 km, where the temperature is quite high, so they consist mainly of water droplets. Only in the cold season. When the surface temperature is low, they contain particles of ice (hail) or snow. The most common types of low clouds are nimbostratus and stratocumulus - dark low clouds accompanied by moderate precipitation.
Clouds of vertical development - cumulus clouds, having the appearance of isolated cloud masses, the vertical dimensions of which are similar to the horizontal ones. They arise as a result of temperature convection and can reach heights of 12 km. The main types are fair weather cumulus (fair weather clouds) and cumulonimbus (cumulonimbus). Good weather clouds look like pieces of cotton wool. Their lifetime is from 5 to 40 minutes. Young fair weather clouds have sharply defined edges and bases, while the edges of older clouds are jagged and blurred.
Other types of clouds: contrails, billow clouds, mammatus, orographic, and pileus.
Atmospheric precipitation is water in a liquid or solid state that falls from clouds or is deposited from the air on the surface of the Earth (dew, frost). There are two main types of precipitation: blanket precipitation (occurring mainly during the passage of a warm front) and torrential precipitation (associated with cold fronts). Precipitation is measured by the thickness of the layer of water that fell over a certain period (usually mm/year). On average, precipitation on Earth is about 1000 mm/year. Precipitation below this value is called insufficient, and more is called excessive.
Water does not form in the sky - it gets there from the earth's surface. This happens in the following way: under the influence of sunlight, moisture gradually evaporates from the surface of the planet (mainly from the surface of oceans, seas and other bodies of water), then water vapor gradually rises upward, where under the influence of low temperatures it condenses (gas is converted into a liquid state) and freezing. This is how clouds are formed. As the mass of liquid in a cloud accumulates, it also becomes heavier. When a certain mass is reached, moisture from the cloud spills onto the ground in the form of rain.
If precipitation falls in an area with low temperatures, droplets of moisture freeze on their way to the ground, turning into snow. Sometimes they seem to stick together, causing snow to fall out in large flakes. This happens most often at not very low temperatures and strong winds. When the temperature is close to zero, the snow, approaching the ground, melts and becomes wet. Such snowflakes, falling to the ground or objects, immediately turn into drops of water. In those areas of the planet where the surface of the earth has managed to freeze, snow can remain as a cover for up to several months. In some particularly cold regions of the Earth (at the poles or high in the mountains), precipitation falls only in the form of snow, while in warm regions (tropics, the equator) there is no snow at all.
When frozen water particles move within a cloud, they expand and become denser. In this case, small pieces of ice are formed, which in this state fall to the ground. This is how hail is formed. Hail can fall even in summer - the ice does not have time to melt even when the temperature at the surface is high. The sizes of hailstones can vary: from a few millimeters to several centimeters.
Sometimes moisture does not have time to rise into the sky, and then condensation occurs directly on the surface of the earth. This usually occurs when the temperature drops at night. IN summer time You can observe moisture settling on the surface of leaves and grass in the form of water droplets - this is dew. During the cold season, the smallest particles of water freeze, and frost forms instead of dew.
Soils are classified by type. The first scientist to classify soils was Dokuchaev. The following types of soils are found on the territory of the Russian Federation: Podzolic soils, tundra gley soils, arctic soils, frozen-taiga soils, gray and brown forest soils and chestnut soils.
Tundra gley soils are found on plains. They are formed without much influence from vegetation. These soils are found in areas where there is permafrost (in the Northern Hemisphere). Often, gley soils are places where deer live and feed in summer and winter. An example of tundra soils in Russia is Chukotka, and in the world it is Alaska in the USA. In areas with such soils, people engage in farming. Potatoes, vegetables and various herbs grow on such land. To improve the fertility of tundra gley soils, the following types of work are used in agriculture: drainage of the most moisture-saturated lands and irrigation of arid areas. Methods for improving the fertility of these soils also include adding organic and mineral fertilizers.
Arctic soils are produced by thawing permafrost. This soil is quite thin. The maximum layer of humus (fertile layer) is 1-2 cm. This type of soil has a low acidic environment. This soil cannot be restored due to the harsh climate. These soils are common in Russia only in the Arctic (on a number of islands of the Northern Arctic Ocean). Due to the harsh climate and small layer of humus, nothing grows on such soils.
Podzolic soils are common in forests. There is only 1-4% humus in the soil. Podzolic soils are obtained through the process of podzol formation. A reaction occurs with the acid. That is why this type of soil is also called acidic. Dokuchaev was the first to describe podzolic soils. In Russia, podzolic soils are common in Siberia and the Far East. Around the world, podzolic soils are found in Asia, Africa, Europe, the USA and Canada. Such soils must be properly cultivated in agriculture. They need to be fertilized, organic and mineral fertilizers added to them. Such soils are more likely to be useful in logging than in agriculture. After all, trees grow better on them than crops. Soddy-podzolic soils are a subtype of podzolic soils. In composition they are largely similar to podzolic soils. A characteristic feature of these soils is that they can be washed out more slowly by water, unlike podzolic soils. Soddy-podzolic soils are found mainly in the taiga (the territory of Siberia). This soil contains up to 10% fertile layer on the surface, and at depth the layer sharply decreases to 0.5%.
Permafrost-taiga soils were formed in forests under permafrost conditions. They are found only in continental climates. The most great depths these soils do not exceed 1 meter. This is caused by the proximity to the surface of permafrost. The humus content is only 3-10%. As a subspecies, there are mountainous permafrost-taiga soils. They form in the taiga on rocks that are covered with ice only in winter. These soils are found in Eastern Siberia. They are found in the Far East. More often, mountain permafrost-taiga soils are found next to small bodies of water. Outside Russia, such soils exist in Canada and Alaska.
Gray forest soils are formed in forest areas. A prerequisite for the formation of such soils is the presence of a continental climate. Deciduous forest and herbaceous vegetation. The places of formation contain an element necessary for such soil - calcium. Thanks to this element, water does not penetrate deep into the soil and does not erode them. These soils are gray in color. The humus content in gray forest soils is 2-8 percent, that is, the soil fertility is average. Gray forest soils are divided into gray, light gray, and dark gray. These soils predominate in Russia in the territory from Transbaikalia to Carpathian Mountains. Fruit and grain crops are grown on the soils.
Brown forest soils are common in forests: mixed, coniferous and broad-leaved. These soils are found only in warm temperate climates. The soil color is brown. Typically brown soils look like this: on the surface of the ground there is a layer of fallen leaves, about 5 cm high. Next comes the fertile layer, which is 20 and sometimes 30 cm. Even lower is a layer of clay of 15-40 cm. There are several subtypes of brown soils. Subtypes vary depending on temperatures. There are: typical, podzolized, gley (surface gley and pseudopodzolic). On the territory of the Russian Federation, soils are distributed in the Far East and in the foothills of the Caucasus. Low-maintenance crops such as tea, grapes and tobacco are grown on these soils. Forests grow well on such soils.
Chestnut soils are common in steppes and semi-deserts. The fertile layer of such soils is 1.5-4.5%. Which indicates average soil fertility. This soil has chestnut, light chestnut and dark chestnut colors. Accordingly, there are three subtypes of chestnut soil, differing in color. On light chestnut soils, farming is possible only with abundant watering. The main purpose of this land is pasture. The following crops grow well on dark chestnut soils without watering: wheat, barley, oats, sunflower, millet. There are slight differences in the chemical composition of chestnut soil. It is divided into clayey, sandy, sandy loam, light loamy, medium loamy and heavy loamy. Each of them has a slightly different chemical composition. The chemical composition of chestnut soil is varied. The soil contains magnesium, calcium, and water-soluble salts. Chestnut soil tends to recover quickly. Its thickness is maintained by annually falling grass and leaves of trees rare in the steppe. You can get good harvests from it, provided there is a lot of moisture. After all, steppes are usually dry. Chestnut soils in Russia are common in the Caucasus, the Volga region and Central Siberia.
There are many types of soils on the territory of the Russian Federation. They all differ in chemical and mechanical composition. At the moment, agriculture is on the verge of crisis. Russian soils must be valued like the land on which we live. Care for soils: fertilize them and prevent erosion (destruction).
The biosphere is a collection of parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, which is populated by living organisms. This term was introduced in 1875 by the Austrian geologist E. Suess. The biosphere does not occupy a certain position, like other shells, but is located within their boundaries. Thus, waterfowl and aquatic plants are part of the hydrosphere, birds and insects are part of the atmosphere, and plants and animals living in the ground are part of the lithosphere. The biosphere also covers everything related to the activities of living beings.
Living organisms contain about 60 chemical elements, the main of which are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, iron and calcium. Living organisms can adapt to life in extreme conditions. Spores of some plants can withstand ultra-low temperatures down to -200°C, and some microorganisms (bacteria) survive at temperatures up to 250°C. Inhabitants depths of the sea withstand enormous water pressure, which would instantly crush a person.
Living organisms do not only mean animals, plants, bacteria and fungi are also considered living things. Moreover, plants account for 99% of the biomass, while animals and microorganisms account for only 1%. Thus, plants make up the vast majority of the biosphere. The biosphere is a powerful reservoir of solar energy. This occurs due to plant photosynthesis. Thanks to living organisms, the circulation of substances on the planet occurs.
According to experts, life on Earth originated approximately 3.5 billion years ago in the World Ocean. This is exactly the age that was assigned to the oldest organic remains found. Since scientists estimate the age of our planet to be around 4.6 billion years, we can say that living beings appeared at an early stage of the Earth’s development. The biosphere has the greatest influence on the rest of the Earth's shells, although not always beneficial. Inside the shell, living organisms also actively interact with each other.
The atmosphere (from the Greek atmos - steam and sphaira - ball) is the gaseous shell of the Earth, which is held by its gravity and rotates with the planet. The physical state of the atmosphere is determined by climate, and the main parameters of the atmosphere are composition, density, pressure and air temperature. Air density and atmospheric pressure decrease with altitude. The atmosphere is divided into several layers depending on temperature changes: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere. Between these layers there are transitional regions called the tropopause, stratopause, and so on.
The troposphere is the lower layer of the atmosphere, in the polar regions it is located up to a height of 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes up to 10-12 km, and at the equator - 16-18 km. The troposphere contains about 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere and almost all water vapor. The air density here is greatest. For every 100 m rise, the temperature in the troposphere decreases by an average of 0.65°. The upper layer of the troposphere, which is intermediate between it and the stratosphere, is called the tropopause.
The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere, which is located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Here, the temperature, on the contrary, increases with altitude. At the border with the troposphere it reaches approximately -56ºС, and at an altitude of about 50 km it rises to 0ºС. The region between the stratosphere and mesosphere is called the stratopause. In the stratosphere there is a layer called the ozone layer, which determines the upper limit of the biosphere. The ozone layer is also a kind of shield that protects living organisms from the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. Complex chemical processes occurring in this shell are accompanied by the release of light energy (for example, northern lights). About 20% of the atmosphere's mass is concentrated here.
The next layer of the atmosphere is the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 50 km and ends at an altitude of 80-90 km. The air temperature in the mesosphere decreases with height and reaches -90ºС in its upper part. The intermediate layer between the mesosphere and the thermosphere that follows it is the mesopause.
The thermosphere or ionosphere begins at an altitude of 80-90 km and ends at an altitude of 800 km. The air temperature here rises quite quickly, reaching several hundred and even thousands of degrees.
The last part of the atmosphere is the exosphere or scattering zone. It is located above 800 km. This space is already practically devoid of air. At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually turns into the so-called near-space vacuum, which does not enter the Earth's atmosphere.
The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth, which is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere and is a collection of oceans, seas and surface waters of the land. The hydrosphere also includes groundwater, ice and snow, water contained in the atmosphere and in living organisms. The bulk of water is concentrated in the seas and oceans, rivers and lakes, which cover 71% of the planet's surface. The second place in terms of volume of water is occupied by groundwater, the third is ice and snow in the Arctic and Antarctic regions and mountainous regions. The total volume of water on Earth is approximately 1.39 billion km³.
Water, along with oxygen, is one of the most important substances on earth. It is part of all living organisms on the planet. For example, a person consists of approximately 80% water. Water also plays an important role in shaping the topography of the Earth's surface and transporting chemicals deep within the Earth and on its surface.
Water vapor contained in the atmosphere acts as a powerful solar radiation filter and climate regulator.
The main volume of water on the planet is made up of the salty waters of the World Ocean. On average, their salinity is 35 ppm (1 kg of ocean water contains 35 g of salts). The highest salinity of water in the Dead Sea is 270-300 ppm. For comparison, in the Mediterranean Sea this figure is 35-40 ppm, in the Black Sea - 18 ppm, and in the Baltic Sea - only 7. According to experts, the chemical composition of ocean waters is in many ways similar to the composition of human blood - they contain almost all known chemical elements to us, only in different proportions. The chemical composition of fresher groundwater is more diverse and depends on the composition of the host rocks and the depth of occurrence.
The waters of the hydrosphere are in constant interaction with the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. This interaction is expressed in the transition of water from one type to another, and is called the water cycle. According to most scientists, it was in water that life on our planet originated.
Volumes of hydrosphere waters:
Sea and ocean waters – 1370 million km³ (94% of the total volume)
Groundwater – 61 million km³ (4%)
Ice and snow – 24 million km³ (2%)
Land bodies of water (rivers, lakes, swamps, reservoirs) – 500 thousand km³ (0.4%)
The lithosphere is the solid shell of the Earth, which includes the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle. The thickness of the lithosphere on land on average ranges from 35-40 km (in flat areas) to 70 km (in mountainous areas). Under the ancient mountains the thickness of the earth's crust is even greater: for example, under the Himalayas its thickness reaches 90 km. The Earth's crust under the oceans is also the lithosphere. Here it is thinnest - on average about 7-10 km, and in some areas Pacific Ocean- up to 5 km.
The thickness of the earth's crust can be determined by the speed of propagation of seismic waves. The latter also provide some information about the properties of the mantle located under the earth's crust and included in the lithosphere. The lithosphere, as well as the hydrosphere and atmosphere, was formed mainly as a result of the release of substances from the upper mantle of the young Earth. Its formation continues today, mainly at the bottom of the oceans.
Most of the lithosphere is made up of crystalline substances that were formed during the cooling of magma - molten matter in the depths of the Earth. As the magma cooled, hot solutions formed. Walking through the cracks in earth's crust, they cooled and released the substances they contained. Since some minerals disintegrate with changes in temperature and pressure, they were transformed into new substances on the surface.
The lithosphere is exposed to the influence of the air and water shells of the Earth (atmosphere and hydrosphere), which is expressed in weathering processes. Physical weathering is a mechanical process as a result of which rock is crushed into smaller particles without changing chemical composition. Chemical weathering leads to the formation of new substances. The rate of weathering is influenced by the biosphere, as well as land topography and climate, water composition and other factors.
As a result of weathering, loose continental sediments were formed, the thickness of which ranges from 10-20 cm on steep slopes to tens of meters on plains and hundreds of meters in depressions. These deposits formed soils that play a vital role in the interaction of living organisms with the earth’s crust.
Terrain orientation includes determining one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or selected direction of movement towards a specific object. The ability to navigate the terrain is especially necessary when you are in sparsely populated and unfamiliar areas.
You can navigate using a map, a compass, or the stars. Landmarks can also be various objects of natural (river, swamp, tree) or artificial (lighthouse, tower) origin.
When navigating on a map, it is necessary to associate the image on the map with a real object. The easiest way is to go to the bank of a river or a road, and then turn the map until the direction of the line (road, river) on the map coincides with the direction of the line on the ground. Objects located to the right and left of the line on the ground should be on the same sides as on the map.
Orienting a map using a compass is used mainly in terrain that is difficult to navigate (in a forest, in a desert), where it is usually difficult to find landmarks. Under these conditions, the compass is used to determine the direction to the north, and the map is positioned with the upper side of the frame towards the north so that the vertical line of the map coordinate grid coincides with the longitudinal axis of the magnetic needle of the compass. Please be aware that compass readings may be affected by metal objects, power lines and electronic devices located in close proximity to the compass.
After the location on the ground is determined, you need to determine the direction of movement and azimuth (deviation of the direction of movement in degrees from the north pole of the compass clockwise). If the route is not a straight line, then you need to accurately determine the distance after which you need to change the direction of movement. You can also select a specific landmark on the map and, having then found it on the ground, change the direction of movement from it.
In the absence of a compass, the cardinal directions can be determined as follows:
The bark of most trees is rougher and darker on the north side;
On coniferous trees, resin tends to accumulate on the south side;
The annual rings on fresh stumps on the north side are located closer to each other;
On the north side there are trees, stones, stumps, etc. covered earlier and more abundantly with lichens and fungi;
Anthills are located on the southern side of trees, stumps and bushes, the southern slope of the anthills is gentle, the northern slope is steep;
In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side;
Separate trees have crowns that are lush and dense on the south side;
Altars Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirks face east, and the main entrances are located on the west side;
The raised end of the lower crossbar of the church cross faces north.
A geographic map is a visual representation of the earth's surface on a plane. The map shows the location and state of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is shown on the maps, they are called political, physical, etc.
Cards are classified according to various criteria:
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Bondarev N. D.
Arkhyz and Bolshaya Laba. -M, 2002.
Preface
Features of travel in spring and summer
Pages of history
B. Laba Valley
M1. Kurdzhinovo - village Phiya.
M2. To the origins of the Great Laba.
MZ. Ashirhumara
M4. To the Labinsky glacier.
Zagedan
M5. To the Zagedan Lakes (20 km, 1.5 days)
Other routes
Phiya
M6. Rechepsta River - lane. Phiya - village Phia (23 km, trail, 1 day)
M7. Phiya village - r. Phiya - lane Urup-Pkhiya - to the source of the river. Atsgara.
Stormy and Azimba
M8. B. Laba River - r. Stormy - lane Vorontsova-Velyaminova - l. Azimba - r. Azimba (25 km, 2 days)
M9. Burnaya River - lane Duritsky - b. Amanauz (17 km, 1 day)
From the upper reaches of B. Laba
M10. B. Laba River - lane Zegerker - trans. 46th Army - lane. Alashtrakhu, trail, 12 km, 1 day.
M11. Labinsky Glacier - lane. Psyrs - Psyrs lakes (1.5 days)
Sanchara
M12. Phiya village - r. Sanchara - lane Sanchara - lane Hell-zapsh, trail, 2 days.
M13. Polyana 7th post - mineral springs Adzapsh - lane. Adzapsh.
M14. Mineral springs Adzapsh - trail along the ridge of the GKH - lane. V. Damkhurts - river valley Damkhurts (trail, 2 days).
M15. B. Laba River - lane. Abgytskha - the left source of the river. Abgytskha (20 km, 1.5 days)
Other routes
Macera
M16. Phiya village - r. Makera - per. Macera (trail)
Mamkhurts
M17. Damkhurts village - r. Mamkhurts - "Seven Lakes" (4-5 days)
Other routes
Damkhurts
M18. Damkhurts village - lane. Damkhurts
Other routes
Big Zelenchuk. Arkhyz
On the way to Arkhyz
M19. Zelenchukskaya village - Arkhyz village (highway, 48 km).
M20. Nizhnyaya Ermolovka - Krivaya gully - Shpil settlement - r. Kyafar (trail, 1-2 days).
M21. Monuments of Nizhny Arkhyz (1 day).
M22. To the Savior Not Made by Hands
M23. Lower Arkhyz - Jeti-Karasu tract - Large azimuthal telescope.
M24. Climbing Mount Pastukhovaya (2733 m, 4 hours)
Other routes
In the vicinity of the village of Arkhyz
M25. Medieval Alan settlement (4-hour excursion).
M26. Barite beam - ridge. Abishira-Ahuba (8 hours).
M27. Rock Karcha-Tebe - lane. Boryu-aush
M28. Arkhyz outlook (6 hours).
M29. Cossack glade - Morkh-Syrty lakes - lane. Ozerny.
M30. Climbing Mt. Krasnaya (trail, half day)
Other routes
Valley of the Arkhyz River
M31. Aul Arkhyz - r. Arkhyz (19 km, road).
M32. Arkhyz River - Gabulu-Chat plateau - Smirnova -r. Psysh (2 days, trail).
M33. Dukka River - lane Ayulu - r. Belaya - r. Psysh (26 km, 2 days).
M34. Dukka Pass - r. Burnaya - r. B. Laba.
M35. Fedoseev Pass (1 A, 2880 m).
M36. Rechepsta River - lane. Atsgara - r. Atsgara (trail, 17 km).
Other routes
Psysh
M37. River valley Psysh - lake Naurskoe (trail, 31 km).
M38. Naur Pass (1 A, 2839 m).
M39. Magana pass - Psyrs lakes - lane. Bearish.
M40. Pshish Pass
M41. Sekirtme River - lane. Chuchkhur - Green Lakes - lane. Hare Ears or per. Kholodovsky - r. Psysh (3 days)
M42. Bush Glacier - lane. Kizgych False - trans. Chuchhurskaya Gap - lane. Chamagwara.
M43. Glacier Psysh - lane. Tokmak and lane Psysh.
Other routes
Belaya and amanauz
M44. Belaya River (Ayulyu) - lane. Dorbun - the source of the river. Stormy
M45. Gorge river Amanauz - per. Tornau and per. Bear-Labinsky glacier.
M46. Amanauz River - lane. Poachers - r. Burnaya (9 km)
M47. Amanauz and Azimba passes
Other routes
Sofia
M48. Aul Arkhyz - r. Sofia - Glacier farm (road, 16 km).
M49. Sofia Falls (half-day excursion) leaves an unforgettable impression.
M50. Sophia Sedlo pass (2640 m)
M51. Glacier farm - r. Ak-Ayry - per. Bash-Jol -r. Psysh (20 km, 1 day)
M52. Ak-Ayry River - lane. Topal-Aush (Kozhukhova) - Green Lakes (2 days)
M53. Ak-Ayry glacier - lane. Ak-Ayry - r. Kyshlau-su (1 day)
M54. Climbing Mount Nadezhda (1A, 3355 m, 10-12 hours)
M55. Ak-Ayry River - lane. Kel-Aush - Upper Sofia Lakes - Kel-Bashi city - r. Ak-Ayry (2-3 days)
M56. River valley Sofia - Gammesh-Chat lakes (excursion, 15 km)
M57. River Sofia - lane Eaglet - lake Craternoe - lake Comma - lakes Kashkha-Echki-Chat - r. Sofia (16 km, 2 3 days)
Other routes
Kizgic
M58. Aul Arkhyz - r. Kizgych - Kshgych-Bash tract (trail, 3-6 days).
M59. Kizgych-Bash tract - Besh-Chuchkhur waterfall - Green lakes ( one day excursion).
M60. Kizgych and Satkharo passes
M61. Kizgych-Bash tract - river valley Salynngan - l. Saleungang (one-day excursion)
M62. Lake Mironova (6-8 hour excursion)
M63. Passes Kongur, Salyngan, Chvakhra
M64. Baga-Tala tract - lane. Bugoychat - r. Marukh (14 km)
M65. Pass of the 810th Rifle Regiment (1 B, 3000 m)
M66. Kurella Pass - lane. Chvakhra - trans. Kongur - lane Satharo - trans. Kizgych False
Kyafar-Urup. Abishira-Ahuba
M67. Zelenchukskaya village - Storozhevaya village - village. Leso-Kyafar
M68. Stanitsa Zelenchukskaya - r. B. Zelenchuk - Generovskaya beam - r. Kyafar-Agur - forestry cordon
At the source of the river Kyafar-Agur
M69. Kyzylchuk ridge - Rassypnoy hillock - Agur lakes - lane. Fedoseeva - Arkhyz (trail, 4-6 days).
M70. Agur Lakes - lane. Agur - lane Mylgval - lake. Kyzylchuk (1-1.5 days).
M71. West River Agur - lane Kumbyzh - lake Kyzylchuk - lake Rybnoe (trail, 4-5 hours).
Other routes
Kyzylchuk. Chilik.
M72. Scattered hillock - Kumbyzh tract - r. Kyzylchuk-oz. Rybnoye - lane Rechepsta - r. Arkhyz (3-4 days)
M73. Rybnoye Lake - lane. Kynhara - lake Chilik - lane Chilik - r. Arkhyz (1.5-2 days)
M74. Rybnoye Lake - lane. Kyzylchuk - lake Chilik - lane Psykela - r. Atsgara - Glade of poppies (2-3 days)
M75. Traverse ridge Abishir-Ahuba from the lane. Chilik to lane Rechepsta
M76. Kyafar-Rechepsta pass (1A, 3000 m)
M77. Kyafar-Arkhyz pass (1 A*, 3000 m)
Other routes
Atsgara
M78. Atsgara River - lane. Zagedan - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba (1-1.5 days).
M79. Glade of poppies - lane. Kabanly - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba
M80. Glade of poppies - lane. Kyrthua - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba (1.5 days)
To the sources of the Urup River
M81. Urup village - ridge. Akshirsky - upper reaches of the river. Urup -r. Zagedanka (trail, 3-4 days)
M82. Great Urup Canyon
M83. Urup-Atsgara pass (1 A*, 3000 m)
Other routes
Brief toponymic dictionary
PREFACE
Western Caucasus is one of the most popular areas mountain tourism, which in the 90s experienced a decline in attendance, as did the entire Caucasus as a whole. IN last years Tourists and climbers began to return here. Convenient access, varied, technically interesting passes and peaks, many high-mountain lakes - all this attracts lovers of mountain travel.
The last book on this region was the guidebook “Mountain Travels in the Western Caucasus” (V.V. Arsenin, N.D. Bondarev, E.D. Sergievsky. M: FiS, 1976). Since then, in the West. The Caucasus has undergone serious changes.
The routes to the southern slopes of the Main Caucasus Range (GKR) were cut off due to the appearance of the state border; new routes were developed on the northern slopes. A need arose for a new guidebook, and it was decided to publish it in two books: “Arkhyz. Big Laba” (N.D. Bondarev) and “From Marukh to Elbrus” (V.V. Arsenin). They continue the series of guidebooks “Elbrus and its spurs” and “South of Baksan” (A. A. Alekseev).
The guidebook for each valley first describes the approach routes, then the pass routes to neighboring gorges. By connecting individual sections, you can create multi-day routes of varying difficulty levels. Descriptions of the passage of passes are mainly tied to July - August. A separate section is devoted to traveling in the off-season (April - May, October - November). Techniques for overcoming mountainous terrain, with rare exceptions, are not given.
Due to rare visits to some valleys, descriptions of individual areas may not correspond to the specific situation, primarily due to the condition of trails, bridges and the location of the pits. In recent years, intensive glacial melting has been observed in the Caucasus, which is why large areas open up even on the slopes of northern exposure in August open ice, the danger of rockfalls increases.
In the descriptions, the indications "left" and "right" are used in an orographic sense, when the observer is looking down the river. Otherwise stated.
Currently, the area has become a border area. To visit it, especially near the border with Abkhazia, permission is required, which can be obtained in advance at the address: 357100, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Cherkessk, st. Leonova, 2, military unit 2011.
At the end of the book there is a list of literature that allows you to become more familiar with the nature and history of the area.
In the guidebook, the chapter "General" geographical information"written together with V.V. Arsenin. E.A. Alperten, E.A. Chernopyatov took part in the descriptions of the routes. A. Kovalenko, A. Kozhukhov, N.V. Koloshina, V. provided assistance in preparing the book with their materials. P. Kuznetsov, I. T. Kuznetsov, V. A. Lunin, P. F. Chirukhin, V. Ya. Fridlyand It is worth noting the special role of L. V. Vegener in the preparation of the guide. He compiled a toponymic dictionary, described several routes and Valuable comments were made on the text and diagrams.
The guide uses photographs by E. A. Alperten, N. D. Bondarev, V. A. Zheltyakov, N. Yu. Kretov, A. V. Pavelchik and E. A. Chernopyatov. At the final stage of preparing the book, a lot of technical work was done by V. A. Kozhin, V. V. Konyshev, L. V. Turkina, E. A. Chernopyatov.
GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
The Western Caucasus is the region of the Caucasus west of Elbrus with borders along the upper reaches of the Kuban and Nenskra. In a narrower sense, to the West. The Caucasus includes the region that includes a high-mountain, glacier-covered section of the Main Caucasus Range (MCR) about 200 km long. Located to the west, more low mountains belongs to the North-West. Caucasus.
The guide covers part of the West. Caucasus with mountains in the upper reaches of B. Zelenchuk, B. Laba, Kyafar-Agur and Urup. Administratively, this territory belongs to the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Stavropol and Krasnodar region. The highest peaks in the area are Pshish (3790 m) and Sofia (3640 m).
Spurs extend north from the GKH, separated by deep valleys of the tributaries of the B. Zelenchuk and B. Laba. At a distance of about 20 km from the GKH, a ridge is located parallel to it. Abishira-Ahuba, belonging to the system of the Advanced (Side) Ridge. By the way, Elbrus (5642 m) also belongs to it. Even further north, along the Peredovoye, stretches the Rocky Ridge (altitude about 2000 m), which has gentle northern slopes. To the south of the GKH there are the Bzyb and Chkhalta ridges. Their spurs, cut by deep canyons of the Amtkel, Jampal, Kelasuri and Gumista rivers, gradually disappear towards the Black Sea coast.
The rivers of the northern slope of the GKH cut through the Side Range with tight gorges, and in the upper reaches many valleys have extensive basins. The rivers originate from glaciers and snowfields; maximum water occurs in the summer; for the most part, the rivers are clean and transparent.
A mountain river is a serious obstacle. The crossing is especially difficult in rainy weather, when the water level rises noticeably. In the Caucasus, where there is a fairly dense network of roads and trails, there are bridges across almost all major rivers. The route must be tied to them. The shepherds build luggage, temporary bridges across large streams. You can find out about the condition of these crossings in villages and villages.
There are many lakes in this region. At altitude, the largest of them lie in carts left by ancient glaciers. Many small tarns and moraine lakes (some with ice until the end of summer) give these mountains a special charm.
The higher a mountainous country is raised, the deeper and more ancient stone layers are exposed and come into view as a result of weathering and erosion of rocks. When traveling through the valleys of the Kuban, you see near Cherkessk, by the river, Quaternary deposits and sedimentary rocks of the Tertiary period (up to 65 million years old), beyond Ust-Dzhegutinskaya - the Cretaceous period (up to 140 million years old). Then, at the entrance to Karachaevsk and beyond it, you cross a wide belt of Jurassic rocks (up to 200 million years old).
On the seismic map of the country, the Caucasus is classified as a 7-8 point zone. An earthquake in the mountains is dangerous due to the occurrence of rockfalls, collapse of cornices and mudflows. A strong earthquake, called Chkhalta, occurred on July 16, 1963. Its epicenter was located near the village of Ptysh, which caused great destruction. A rockfall led to a tragedy in a group of climbers on the wall of Mount Dombay-Ulgena.
On the southern slope of the GKH, where there was a thunderstorm with rain at that time, landslides occurred. As a result, the road in the village was destroyed in several places. Chkhalta. The landslide blocked the upper reaches of the river. Ptysh. The river swept away the barrier, the mudflow washed away the banks and toppled the forest.
Although strong tremors are rare, their likelihood forces us to carefully choose a bivouac site, critically assessing it (including ready-made sites) from the point of view of rockfall.
The climate of the area is determined by two factors: proximity to the Black Sea and the chain high mountains. The influence of the sea is stronger on the southern slopes, which intercept a significant part of the moisture from warm western and southwestern winds. At their foot and on the coast, about 1500 mm of precipitation falls per year. With altitude, the amount of precipitation increases, reaching 3000 mm or more. In winter, a lot of snow falls at moderate altitudes; in the highlands, the thickness of the snow cover reaches several meters.
It is colder and drier on the northern slopes. When crossing the GKH, this difference is very noticeable. As you ascend into the mountains, the temperature drops and the amount of precipitation increases. In Teberda, located at an altitude of about 1300 m, average temperature July +15.6 "C, January ~4" C, about 700 mm of precipitation falls per year.
In Dombay (1630 m) the temperature is several degrees lower, and the precipitation is twice as much. According to long-term observations at the Klukhorsky Pass weather station (2037 m), the height of the snow cover reaches 2 m, and on the pre-summit slopes it reaches 4 m. The rainiest months are May and June. The relatively dry season lasts from August to October. In August, frosts are already common at altitudes of 2500 m.
Over the last hundred years, the area of most glaciers has decreased by about a quarter, and their number has increased due to fragmentation (although some small ones have disappeared completely). The average thickness of cirque glaciers is 25-30 m, and of large valley glaciers - 100 m. The glaciers continue to retreat, the moraines are covered with grass and bushes. The Caucasus is characterized by the proximity of glaciers and bright greenery. In the Hetskvara gorge in July, azalea blooms a few tens of meters from the glacier.
Avalanche danger is coming late autumn in October - November, when snowfalls begin. Avalanches of dry snow occur during or immediately after heavy snowfalls (70-100 mm per day). During snowstorms, snow boards form. In cold winters with little snow, the cause of an avalanche can be the formation of a fragile layer of deep frost. With the transition of the average daily temperature above 0 °C in March - April, the time of wet avalanches begins. They are also possible in winter during thaws. Mass avalanches usually end by May, but in the highlands this period is delayed. On snowy slopes and under eaves, avalanche danger persists all year round.
Avalanche cones remain at the foot of the slopes until the middle, and in shaded areas until the end of summer. The danger of avalanches also exists in the middle mountains: avalanche centers, although rare, are known near Teberda and Arkhyz. Particular attention to avalanche danger is required when traveling in spring (May) and autumn.
Entering the mountains from the north, you first cross a belt of deciduous forests, starting from an altitude of 500-600 m. Its lower floor (up to 900-1000 m) is occupied by oak-hornbeam forests with hazel, ash, pear, and the upper (up to 1400 m) - beech. In wide developed parts of the valleys, such forests are found in islands, but they completely cover the steep, inaccessible slopes of the gorges. Alder and willow grow along the river banks. At altitudes from 1200-1400 m to 2200 m there are dark coniferous forests (fir, spruce). Dry sunny slopes and rocks are occupied by pine trees.
Above there is a subalpine belt, the limits of which range from 1800 to 2500 m. Above the edge of the tall-trunk forest stretches a strip of beech, birch, and maple woodland. There are also thickets of rhododendrons, the bushes of which bloom at different times, and its white or cream inflorescences can be seen almost all summer. Even higher up lie tall grass meadows as tall as a man. There is a kingdom of flowers here: orange elecampane, blue bells, white daisies, pink hollyhocks, yellow lilies, crimson clover. Three-meter umbrellas of hogweed rise in the middle of the sea of flowers. Touching it causes long-lasting burns.
On gentle slopes where livestock are grazed, the grass stand is poorer. Thickets of horse sorrel and poisonous hellebore stand out here. On alpine meadows(2500-3200 m) short grass does not hide the stones. The floral carpet is filled with bright blue hyacinths, purple primroses, yellow ranunculus, pink asters and purple bluebells. Grass and flowers also grow on rocky shelves high above the snowfields and ice.
Animal world includes more than 40 species of mammals and 120 species of birds. The forests are home to wild boar, roe deer, Caucasian deer, fox, lynx, jackal, and marten. The brown hare is found everywhere. The Altai squirrel, introduced in 1937, has spread. There are also wolves. In the Caucasian and Teberda nature reserves, work is underway to restore the herd that was exterminated at the beginning of the 20th century. Caucasian bison. In summer, a brown bear stays near the edge of the forest, where you can stumble upon a bedding area it has left. It also enters valleys, especially raspberry fields. On the grassy ledges near the forest you can see a herd of chamois, and on the rocks in the upper reaches of the gorges - aurochs. Tur's "paths" follow barely noticeable ledges and shelves; traces of tur's are also found on snowfields. It is dangerous to be below these animals, because stones may fall from under their hooves!
Among the birds of the forest and meadow zones there are both common for middle zone- jay, woodpecker, cuckoo, and mountain ptarmigan (chukar), griffon vulture, black vulture. In the highlands live the snowcock (a large gray turkey) and the black, yellow-beaked alpine jackdaw, which lives near glaciers and snowfields.
Among the reptiles found (up to the rocks of the Alpine belt) are lizards, grass snakes, copperheads, steppe and Caucasian vipers. Caucasian viper, endemic to Western Europe. Caucasus, found up to an altitude of 2500 m in clearings and overgrown screes. In the subalpine zone, the viper stays near rocks and screes. It can have different colors, but is characterized by a wide black zigzag stripe on the back. The snake is difficult to distinguish among dry fern leaves or stones covered with lichens.
There are trout in the rivers and some lakes.
To the West There are nature reserves in the Caucasus - Caucasian and Teberdinsky (with a branch in Arkhyz). Permission is required to stay there. In the gorges (B. Zelenchuk, Urup, B. Laba, etc.) reserves have been created where hunting, fishing and berry picking are prohibited.
The foothills and valleys, suitable for farming and gardening, are densely populated. Main view economic activity- cattle breeding. The movement of livestock to mountain pastures occurs in May-June, the season usually lasts until September. For temporary residence, traditional koshas are used - huts made of logs, stone, shingles or twigs and tents.
Meadows in valleys where there are roads are used for haymaking. The mountaineers value them, clear them of stones and fence them. Under no circumstances should you trample the grass, shortening the paths, set up a bivouac on it, or throw stones around.
Earth. The whole world. Countries of the world.
The following significant events have occurred around the world since the beginning of the 20th century:
- Two devastating world wars;
- Great Depression of the 1930s;
- Vast colonial empires collapsed;
- There is rapid progress in science and technology;
- Cold War between the Western Alliance and the Warsaw Pact countries;
- Sharp rise in living standards in North America, Europe and Japan;
- Global environmental problems have emerged, including deforestation, energy and water shortages, declining biodiversity and air pollution;
- The AIDS epidemic began;
The world's population continues to increase dramatically: from 1 billion in 1820 to 2 billion in 1930, 3 billion in 1960, 4 billion in 1974, 5 billion in 1987, 6 billion in 1999 to 7 billion in 2012.
In the 21st century, the continued exponential growth of science and technology brings new hopes (for example, advances in medicine) and creates fears (for example, the development of ever more lethal weapons for warfare).
Geographical overview of the world:
The Earth's surface consists of approximately 70.9% water and 29.1% land. The water surface is divided conditionally into large groups called oceans, in descending order of area: the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean (a new term that has appeared in world geography) and the Arctic Ocean.
The land is divided into large parts called continents.
Depending on the classification, the number of continents can vary from five to seven. In Russia, it is customary to separate parts of the world and continents.
In the most common world classification, there are seven continents (from largest to smallest):
Asia,
Africa,
North America,
South America,
Antarctica,
Europe,
Australia.
Asia and Europe are sometimes united into one continent, which is called Eurasia, in which case there are six continents.
In addition, North America and South America are sometimes also combined into one continent - North and South America, resulting in a total of six or five continents, if the term Eurasia is also used.
North America usually includes the island of Greenland, the islands Caribbean, and ends in the south with the Panama Canal.
Eastern Europe is generally bounded on the east by the Ural Mountains and the Ural River, on the southeast by the Caspian Sea, on the south by the Caucasus, the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea.
Countries: Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkey are located simultaneously in Europe and Asia, but in any case, most of their territory is in Asia.
These countries are considered part of both continents. Armenia and Cyprus, which lie entirely in Western Asia, are geopolitically European countries.
Asia includes all the islands of the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Pacific Islands are often combined with Australia and called Australia and Oceania.
Africa from the northeast is limited by the Suez Canal, but also for geopolitical purposes, the Egyptian Sinai peninsula often seen as part of Africa.
Although the above classifications are the most common, this division is based on the cultural sphere, and not on physical-geographical calculations.
A group of articles about geography, sociology, demography and economics of the countries of the world:
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Russia - a state located on two continents, in Eastern Europe and northern Asia. Largest state world - 17,125,422 sq/km or 1/9 of the entire land area of the Earth, which is twice as much as Canada, which ranks second.
Russia borders on 19 countries(the largest figure in the world), of which by land with the following countries: Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania - in the northwest, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine - in the west, Abkhazia, Georgia, South Ossetia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan - in the south, China, Mongolia, North Korea- in the southeast; and by sea with Turkey - in the southwest, with Japan and the USA - in the east. Besides, Kaliningrad region, a Russian enclave on the Baltic Sea coast, borders Poland and Lithuania with east side.
belong to Russia also islands New Earth, Severnaya Zemlya, Vaigach, Franz Josef Land archipelago, New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island in the Arctic Ocean in the north, Kurile Islands(parts of which are still disputed by Japan) and the island of Sakhalin in the Pacific Ocean to the east.
In the east Russia is washed Japanese, Okhotsk and Bering seas and the Bering Strait; in the north - by the Laptev and White Seas, Barents, Kara, Chukotka and East Siberian seas; in the west - the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Finland; in the south - the Black, Azov and Caspian seas.
After the collapse of the USSR at the end of 1991 the Russian Federation was recognized by the international community as a republic federal structure and accepted into the UN Security Council and a number of other international organizations. The independence of the Russian Federation was declared on August 24, 1991. The head of state is the President (elected once every 6 years), executive power belongs to the government headed by the Prime Minister (appointed by Parliament upon nomination by the President).
The State Duma and the Federation Council form a bicameral Parliament.
Lower House State Duma - 450 deputies, elections are held once every 5 years.
Upper House Federation Council - 170 senators appointed by regional parliaments.
Part The Russian Federation includes 22 republics, one autonomous region (Jewish), 4 autonomous districts, 9 territories and 46 regions.
Moscow, St. Petersburg and Sevastopol have direct federal subordination and are cities federal significance. In total, as of 2015, there are 85 constituent entities in the Russian Federation.
From a demographic point of view in the Russian Federation, the most significant event in March 2014 was the actual reunification Crimean peninsula with the territory of the Russian state.
Capital of Russia- Moscow. The largest city Russia with a population of 12,197,596 people.
Heart of Russia- Moscow Kremlin.
In total, there are 15 million-plus cities in Russia, largest cities with a population of over 1 million people. These are Moscow, St. Petersburg (more than 5 million people); Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg (more than 1.5 million people); Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Samara, Chelyabinsk, Omsk, Rostov-on-Don, Ufa, Krasnoyarsk, Perm, Volgograd, Voronezh.
Total Russia covers11 time zones with a difference from +2 to +12 hours relative to Greenwich.
Population- 146,293,111 people (as of 2014 od). Most of the inhabitants of Russia (about 80%) live in the European part (Central, Southern, North Caucasian, Northwestern, Volga, Ural federal districts). The remaining 20% is in the Asian part of Russia (Siberian, Far Eastern districts). The majority of the population lives in cities - 75%.
Live in Russia representatives of more than 200 nationalities. The largest ethnic group - Russians - makes up 80% of the country's population. Tatars - 4%, Ukrainians - 3%, Chuvash, Bashkirs, Belarusians, Mordovians, Chechens, Armenians, Avars and other nationalities - 1% or less.
Peoples of Russia speak more than 100 languages and dialects. Russian is the native language of approximately 130 million citizens (92% of the Russian population). He is also state language Russian Federation. Also, Ukrainian, Tatar, Armenian and other languages are common.
Christians live in Russia(mainly Orthodox), Muslims, Buddhists (mainly in Buryatia, Kalmykia and Tuva - Siberia), Jews, pagans and representatives of other religious faiths. The share of Russian citizens who are Orthodox Christians is 70% of all residents of the country. The number of Muslims is 15% of the population. Convinced atheists make up 6% of the population.
State currency- Russian ruble (~60 RUB = 1 USD).
Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources, large reserves of various minerals, the most important of which are oil, gas, coal, gold and other strategic minerals. Russia ranks first in the world in terms of forest area, which occupy 45% of the country's territory, and has approximately 1/5 of the world's timber reserves. Also, Russia has the largest number of lakes, containing about a quarter of the world's reserves of unfrozen fresh water.
Despite the vastness of the territory, a relatively small part of the land is used in agriculture - arable land occupies only 8% of the country's territory. A significant part of the territory falls on the permafrost zone.
About 3/4 of the territory The countries are made up of plains. In the west lies the East European Plain, one of the largest plains in the world, on which almost the entire European part of Russia is located. In the south of the country there are northern slopes Caucasus Mountains where is the most high point countries and Europe - Mount Elbrus (5.642 meters). In the east, the plain is limited by the low old Ural Mountains up to 2,000 meters high. And to the east of the Urals lies the West Siberian Plain with vast wetlands, bordered in the southeast Altai mountains altitude up to 4,500 meters. Closer to the Pacific coast in the east is the region of mountain ranges and plateaus of Northeast Asia. Thus, the eastern part of the country, with the exception of the valleys of large rivers, is a mountainous area. There are 120 volcanoes on the Kamchatka Peninsula, 23 of which are active. The tallest of them is Klyuchevskaya Sopka 4,750 meters high. Largest rivers countries - Volga, Northern Dvina, Don, Irtysh, Ob, Angara, Yenisei, Lena, Amur. Largest lakes: Baikal (in the southeast) - the deepest and largest in volume in the world, Lakes Ladoga, Onega (in the northeast).
Most of the country located within moderate climate zone. The extreme regions of the north and northern islands belong to the Arctic zone, and some southern areas are close to the subtropics. The climate throughout almost the entire country is continental, which is especially evident in the large range of seasonal temperatures and scarcity of precipitation. In most parts of the territory, winter is long. Particularly severe frosts are observed in Eastern Yakutia (-45..-50 degrees). In the European part of Russia, winter temperatures range from 0 to -10 degrees. In summer, average temperatures are +15..+25 degrees. In the warm half of the year - from May to October - the bulk of precipitation falls.
Differences in climate zones characterizes the diversity of natural areas. IN arctic deserts Mosses, polar poppies, and buttercups grow in the Far North; in the tundra, dwarf birch, willow, and alder are added to these species. Spruce, fir, cedar, and larch are typical for the taiga. To the south and west begins a zone of broad-leaved forests of oak, maple, linden, and hornbeam. Also, in the country you can find many rare species: Mongolian oak, Manchurian maple, elm, walnut. In the forest-steppe and steppe parts of the country there are oak forests, herbs, and cereals. The Black Sea subtropics are dominated by forests of fluffy oak, junipers, boxwood, and black alder. On the coast there are eucalyptus and palm trees.
Rich and diverse fauna countries. In the Arctic and tundra zones: arctic fox, reindeer, polar hare, seals, walruses, polar bear. The taiga is inhabited by bear, lynx, wapiti, wolverine, elk, sable, ermine, chipmunk, and squirrel; Capercaillie, hazel grouse, black grouse, woodpecker, and nutcracker nest. In addition, the taiga is characterized by the presence huge amount mosquitoes The deciduous forests are home to wild boar, deer, mink, numerous birds, and lizards. In forests Far East- rare Ussuri tigers, bears, deer. Among the animals of the steppe zone, small rodents predominate, with many saigas, badgers, foxes, and large steppe birds (bustard, crane, little bustard). In the desert there are gazelles, jackals, sand cats, and numerous rodents. Lots of reptiles and turtles. The Caucasus region is inhabited by the mountain goat, Caucasian deer, porcupine, leopard, hyena, bear, as well as a large number of reptiles.