Features of transport development in Italy. Transport system of Italy. Train classes and costs
In domestic transportation of goods and passengers, road transport plays the main role, followed by railway transport. The country ranks among the first in the world in terms of railway electrification. A dense network of modern highways and railways connects the cities of Northern Italy. In domestic transportation of goods and passengers, road transport plays the main role, followed by railway transport.
River transport in Italy is poorly developed due to the lack large rivers. Developing quite quickly civil Aviation Italy. Air lines keep in touch largest cities Italy with many cities in Europe, as well as other continents. Largest airports countries - Leonardo da Vinci near Rome, Malpensa and Linate near Milan serve important centers international network airlines.
Due to the elongation of the country from north to south, its network of railways and highways developed predominantly in the meridional direction. Latitudinal communications, with the exception of the Padan Plain, are insufficient. Many automobile and railways Italy are laid on steep mountain slopes and therefore have many bridges, tunnels, etc., which increases the cost of their operation. In international road and rail transport, roads built in the Alps play a particularly important role.
In Italy, the role of road transport is exceptionally large: it accounts for 3/4 of all land transport of goods. The total length of highways reaches almost 300 thousand km, and about half of them are in Northern Italy, in the south of the country the density road network significantly less.
In 1924, the world's first highway (Milan - Varese) was built in Italy. Nowadays, in terms of the length of highways (5.9 thousand km), Italy ranks second after Germany among the capitalist countries of Europe. The densest network of motorways in the North. Of great importance is the main transport axis of the country - the Sun Highway, the best of Italian roads, connecting Turin with Milan, Florence, Rome, Naples and going further to the extreme south, to the city of Reggio Calabria. The development of road transport in general and, in particular, road construction was negatively affected by the fuel and energy crisis.
Railways are inferior in importance to roads. Rail transport in Italy is less developed than in other capitalist countries. However, in last years V railway construction began to invest more capital than in motor transport. In terms of technical equipment, some of the main lines, modernized in the late 60s, stand out. As a result of this modernization, for example, on the Rome - Florence line, the train can reach speeds of up to 200 km/h. The length of Italy's railways exceeds 20 thousand km. Maritime transport plays a very important role in both internal and external transportation of the country. This is due to Italy’s position on the Mediterranean waterway, its long coastlines, the presence of islands within the country. There are 144 ports on the shores of Italy.
90% of goods imported into the country and 60-65% of exported goods are transported by sea. A significant part of domestic transport is also carried out by sea. An important source of foreign exchange earnings for Italy is international freight. More than half of the total tonnage of the Italian maritime fleet is oil tankers, which is associated with a powerful oil refining industry.
The cargo turnover of Italian ports is dominated by oil and other minerals. The largest Italian port of Genoa, with an annual cargo turnover of over 50 million tons, is one of the most important in the entire Mediterranean. Genoa serves as the gateway to the outside world for the entire industrial North-West of Italy, as well as for Switzerland. It is one of the leading container ports Mediterranean Sea. Genoa's main rival and competitor on the Adriatic is Trieste, second in Italy in terms of cargo turnover (42 million tons) and one of the most important oil ports in Europe. In addition, it is the main coffee transhipment point in Europe. Through Trieste, North-Eastern Italy is connected with other countries of the Mediterranean, Near and Middle East, East Africa And East Asia. It also serves as the main port on the Mediterranean for the Danube countries, primarily for Austria. Trieste is primarily a transit port, unlike Venice, which plays a direct role in the economy of North-Eastern Italy. The development of the Venetian port in recent years has been facilitated by the increase in Italian trade with Russian Federation, countries of Asia and Africa.
Over the past decades, the cargo turnover of the ports of Southern Italy (Augusta and Taranto) has increased significantly, which is explained primarily by the rapid development of the oil refining and petrochemical industries.
Peninsular Italy is connected to its islands and to some Yugoslav and Greek ports by sea ferries. The ferry line connecting Sicily with the Apennine Peninsula is especially busy. Therefore, the question is being raised about the construction of a tunnel or bridge across the Strait of Messina.
River transport in Italy is poorly developed due to the lack of large rivers. The development of the oil refining and petrochemical industries stimulated the spread of pipeline transport in Italy. The total length of main oil and gas pipelines exceeds 8 thousand km. The densest network of pipelines in the North. Some of them are of international importance, such as the gas pipeline that supplies natural gas from Russia to Northern Italy.
Civil aviation in Italy is developing quite quickly. Air lines connect the largest cities in Italy with many cities in Europe, as well as other continents. The country's largest airports - Leonardo da Vinci near Rome, Malpensa and Linate near Milan, etc. - serve as important centers of the international airline network.
Most major Italian cities have public transport- metro, tram and trolleybus lines (ATAC), as well as buses and commuter trains(COTRAL). Transport routes are shown on special maps, which can be purchased at newspaper sales outlets, gas stations, railway stations and bus stations. To travel on municipal transport, you must purchase a ticket on which the date and time of the start of the trip and the last transfer are noted. You can use a tourist ticket, which gives you the right to freely travel on any type of public transport during the day.
Enough popular view transport in Italy is a taxi. You can simply stop him on the road or call him by phone. You should not use the services of private carriers, as they significantly inflate prices. Licensed taxis are equipped with communication equipment and meters.
Water transport in Italy
In Italy you can enjoy boat trips. For example, the airport can be reached by ships owned by the Cooperativa San Marco company, while making a stop on the island of Lido.
Bicycles, mopeds and scooters
In large city authorities they promote riding bicycles as part of the program to fight for the environment. There are many bicycle rental points in such cities. Initially, they did not charge a fee for their use, but a little later it was introduced, but it was insignificant.
Besides, Riding mopeds or scooters is quite common in Italy. They can also be rented. This is done by organizations such as Scoot-a-Long, St. Peter's Moto or Happy Rent. When riding, you must wear a protective helmet.
Intercity transport in Italy
Travel from city to city in Italy most comfortable on company-owned trains Trenitalia. The train schedule is posted on the company's website. Please note that booking tickets on the website is not always convenient, as it does not always provide accurate information about the availability of seats.
It is best to use the ticket vending machines located at each railway station. When ordering travel document It is possible to choose a seat in the carriage.
The fastest and expensive trains are the "Red Arrow" (Frecciarossa) and the "Silver Arrow" (Frecciargento), the travel time from Florence is a little over an hour. If you travel along the same route on Intercity trains, the travel time will be twice as long.
"Red Arrow" (Frecciarossa)
"Silver Arrow" (Frecciargento)
If you need to travel with a transfer, it is best to use trains called " regionale" Such trains usually carry a large number of people, there are no toilets, and the tickets do not indicate the carriage number and seat. The only advantage of "regionale" is the cost of travel to them. For example, in order to get to Napoli from Rome you need to pay 10 euros for a ticket.
Night trips are considered the most economical. For this purpose, seated compartments for 6 people are provided.
If you need to get to Sicily or Sardinia, it is best to use the services of Alitalia's local subsidiary, Air One. In this case, you will need to pay about 50 euros for a round trip ticket.
Not very convenient to travel to Italy with your own car, since in all major cities There is a parking problem, highways are mostly toll roads and fuel is quite expensive. Please note that some Italian cities In order to fight for the environment, the city authorities prohibited entering the city center by car without special permission. However, in Sicily it makes sense to rent a car (cost about 300 euros for 7 days) to move around freely mountain roads and stops on “wild” beaches.
To rent a car you need an international driver's license, a passport indicating age (over 25 years), and the required amount of money. Please note that drunk driving is punishable by significant fines or jail time.
The urban transport system in Italy is extremely developed. There are buses, taxis, and a subway in Italy, as well as water transport typical of Italy, which is represented by gondolas and river taxis. The latter are very popular among tourists who enjoy riding in a river taxi and, of course, in a gondola. The first one seats four people and, like regular taxi, counts the footage. Parking lots are everywhere in the city. The price for a gondola is about 80 thousand liras for a 50-minute ride during the day and 110 thousand at night.
In Italy, whose borders are washed by more than 90% of the seas and in which most of the territory is coastal areas, the coastal fleet is also important in the internal transport of passengers and especially cargo. Among the sectors of Italian transport, the maritime fleet is of great interest, which is the largest international carrier and is important for the development of Italian foreign trade. Through seaports passes 90% of goods arriving in Italy for imports and 55-60% for exports. The Italian merchant marine fleet performs the most important national economic functions. This is the main reason that it is overwhelmingly under state control.
Cars are also extremely popular in Italy. Out of 293 thousand km. About half of the roads are in Northern Italy. Italy has 1/4 of all European motorways (about 6 thousand km), including the world's oldest motorway, Milan-Varese, built in 1924. The main transport artery of the country is the Autostrada de la Sol, running across the whole of Italy, from Turin through Milan, Florence, Rome, Naples to Reggio Calabria. Five international highways pass through Italy: London-Paris-Rome-Palermo, London-Lausanne-Milan-Brindy, Rome-Berlin-Oslo-Stjordan, Rome-Vienna-Warsaw, Amsterdam-Basel-Genoa. The Italian vehicle fleet numbers over 20 million vehicles, including about 18 million passenger cars.
Railway transport could not withstand the fight against such a powerful competitor and was in a state of crisis for a long time. Only in recent years has the state, which owns 82% of the railways, begun to invest in their enhanced development. Some lines have been modernized, the Rome-Florence high-speed railway (“Diretettissima”) has been built, on which trains can reach speeds of up to 200-260 km per hour, this route forms part of the future high-speed highway connecting Milan with Florence, Rome, Naples. The total length of railways is 19.8 thousand km (including sidings), of which 10.2 thousand km are electrified.
There are two metro lines in Rome. Line A, 18 km long, connects the city center from Ottaviano near the Vatican to the eastern outskirts of the city, passing through Cinecitta (Anagnia). Line B runs north to the city outskirts (Rebbibia) and to EUR, a modern industrial complex in the south. The lines intersect at Termini.
The Milan metro is considered the best in Italy. MM consists of two branches (1 and 2) and serves the city and its outskirts. Tourists usually use the 1, heading south near Stazione Centrale via Piazza del Maria della Grazie.
By bus, train or ferry you can get to almost anywhere in Italy. For longer distances it is more convenient to fly by plane.
Own car gives more freedom, but remember that petrol and motorway driving in Italy are very expensive. The optimal solution is to travel by public transport between big cities and drive a personal car only outside the city.
Water transport
Navi - large ferries of Sicily and Sardinia, traghetti - small ferries and aliscafi ply between small islands. The main passenger pick-up points in Sardinia are Livorno, Civitavecchia and; in Sicily - and Villa San Giovanni in Calabria. Arrival points in Sardinia are Cagliari, Arabatax, Olbia and Porto Torres; in Sicily - and Messina.
Detailed information about all ferry services in Italy can be found here. The website lists all routes, and also contains links to companies where you can book trips and buy tickets.
Tirrenia Navigazioni (0810 171 998; www.tirrenia.it) serves almost all Italian ports. There are also companies such as Grandi Navi Veloci, Superfast, Ventouris and Montenegro Lines.
Many ferry trips take place at night. You can choose your seat in a 2/3/4-seater cabin or even a separate Poltrona seat. Deck class means you can sit or sleep on the deck or in the common lounges. Almost all ferries carry cars.
Hitchhiking in Italy
In Italy it's quite a rare event. Public transport quite reliable, and most Italians prefer to use it rather than cars. Hitting a ride is unsafe, especially for women.
Buses and trams are popular public transport in Italy
Bus services in Italy are provided by many companies. They cover both local routes and intercity connections. Traveling by bus is not always cheaper than by train, but in terms of traveling to small town The bus is a very advantageous option.
Route schedules can be obtained from local tourist offices. In large cities, most bus companies have ticket offices or offices. In some villages, bus tickets are sold on the buses themselves or in bars. Please note that buses always leave on time.
There is no need to book tickets at all. This is only relevant during the peak tourist season and for long trips.
Metro and bus tickets
You should buy a ticket before boarding the bus and have it checked. For violations, a fine is given on the spot (about 50 euros).
There is a metro in Rome, Milan, Naples and Turin. The situation with tickets here is the same as on buses.
Every city, big or small, has an efficient urban and intercity bus network that reaches even the most remote villages. Tickets can be purchased at tobacco shops, newsstands, ticket offices and vending machines at bus stations. One ticket costs about 1 euro. Also, almost everywhere there are promotions for one-day tourist tickets.
Cars and motorcycles
Italy has a network of motorways, which can be recognized by the white road sign A on a green background. North and south are connected by del Sole - this route extends from Milan to Reggio Calabria (A1 from Milan to, A2 from Rome to and A3 from Naples to Reggio Calabria).
Tolls apply to most motorways. You can pay in cash or credit card. To avoid queues, buy a prepaid card (Viacard). They are sold in banks and ACI offices. Denomination – 25, 50 and 75 euros. This card can be used throughout Italy. For getting detailed information for tolls call 800 26 92 69 or visit www.autostrade.it
Strade statal - such roads are represented on maps with S or CC signs. This is a two- or four-lane highway on which traffic does not move quickly, especially in mountainous areas. Strade provinciali are rural roads connecting small villages. Strade locali are local roads that may not yet be built.
Trains are the fastest and most convenient form of transport in Italy
Trains in Italy are relatively inexpensive compared to others European countries. This is a fast and convenient form of transport.
The railways are almost entirely state-owned, operated by the partially privatized Trenitalia (800 89 20 21 in Italian; www.trenitalia.com). And there are also private railway lines.
There are several types of trains in Italy. Some stop at all stations, such as regional or interregional trains, while faster trains - Intercity (IC) or faster Eurostar Italia (ES) - stop only in major cities.
Almost every station has either luggage storage or lockers. The cells, which are guarded by guards, are usually open either from 6:00 to 00:00, or around the clock. Cost – 3 euros per seat.
Train classes and costs
Seats on most Italian trains are divided into first and second class. A 1st class ticket costs slightly less than two 2nd class tickets.
For intercity travel or on Eurostar trains, a surcharge of from 3 to 16 euros is charged, depending on the length of the distance. The cost of a Eurostar ticket includes a supplement and a booking fee. Current prices Routes can be found on the Trenitalia website.
To the cost of overnight travel it is worth adding an additional charge for sleeping area– about 20 euros.
It is not necessary to book tickets, but it is advisable to popular routes tickets are selling out quickly. Pre-order will cost you 3 euros. It's always worth booking Eurostar train tickets.
You can book a train ticket in most travel agencies, in the Internet. You can also buy a ticket by arriving at the station in advance. To sell tickets for Eurostar trains, there are special ticket offices at some stations.
Carta Verde can be purchased at all major stations. This card costs 40 euros and is valid for a year. It entitles you to a 10% discount on domestic flights within Germany and 25% for intercity. Carta d’Argento costs 30 euros and offers 15% discount on domestic and 25% discount on intercity flights.
Public transport within the city
All major cities have well-developed bus and metro transport systems. However, in Venice, for example, the only transportation options are by vaporetto (small passenger ferries) or on foot.
Taxi
There are taxi stands at train and bus stations. Voting" on the roads is illegal. If you called a taxi by phone, keep in mind that the meter started working when you called, and not when you got into the car. The minimum price for taxi driver services is from 2.33 to 4.91 euros depending on the time of day, plus 0.78 euros per kilometer (in Rome this price is 1.29 euros), and in the end the most short trips in the city they will cost from 10 to 15 euros. No more than 4-5 people can travel in one taxi.
Large local airlines– this is Air One (phone: 199 207 080; Alitalia (phone: 06 22 22; www.flyairone.it); and Meridiana (phone: 89 29 28; www.flyairone.it); Ryanair (phone: 899 678 910; www.flyairone.it); also has domestic flights within Italy.
The country's main airports are located in Rome, Pisa, Milan, Bologna, Genoa, Naples, Venice, Catania, and Cagliari.
Bicycles
The whole country rides bicycles. There are no special rules, but it is recommended to wear helmets and turn on headlights. Bicycles cannot be ridden on highways. If you plan to take your bike on holiday to Italy, check with your airline about any additional costs. For transportation, the bicycle must be disassembled and packed. Don't forget to also bring spare parts and tools for repairs.
If a train has a bicycle icon, it means it can carry “two-wheeled friends.” The cheapest way is to buy a separate ticket for the bicycle; it costs from 3.5 to 12 euros for intercity, Eurostar and Euronight trains. This ticket is valid for 24 hours, which is quite economical. Disassembled and packed bicycles can be accepted free of charge on night trains, and they can always be carried on ferries without additional fees.
CONTENT:
1. The place of Italy and its transport in the modern world economy.
2. Natural conditions and natural resources of the country.
3. Development of transport.
4. General characteristics of the economy, characteristics of industry, characteristics of agriculture
5. Economic relations in Italy carried out through
river and sea ports
6. Characteristics of transport (modern):
Ground modes and air transport.
River and sea.
Characteristics of ports.
7. Prospects for the development of transport in Italy and its ports.
8. Schematic maps
Physiographic conditions
Transport network and industry
9. List of used literature.
The place of Italy and its transport in the modern world economy.
Italy is a developed capitalist country, located in the center of the Mediterranean, in the south of Western Europe and focusing not only on many typical features of nature, economic, political, cultural life, but also the most important problems of both regions. In terms of economic development, it is one of the most developed countries. Modern Italy, although not one of the great powers that have a decisive influence on the course of world events, is still one of the seven largest capitalist states in the world in terms of the scale of economic activity.
Italy occupies the Apennine Peninsula, which juts deep into the sea, the part of the mainland adjacent to it from the north - the Padana Plain, bordered by a powerful arc of the Alps, as well as the large islands of Sicily and Sardinia and a number of small archipelagos and islets. In terms of area (301 thousand sq. km), Italy belongs to the category of medium-sized countries, ranking third in Western Europe(after France and Spain). Administratively, Italy is divided into 20 historically established and constitutionally established regions, which are divided into 94 provinces, which in turn consist of communes with a total number of over 8 thousand. The capital of Italy is Rome.
A land border approximately 1,900 km long, approximately coinciding with the main watershed of the Alps, separates Italy from France, Switzerland, Austria, and Yugoslavia. It passes almost entirely on high mountain ranges. Among the mountains, however, there are depressions through which railways and trackless roads pass, connecting Italy with neighboring countries. Maritime boundaries separate the territorial waters of Italy from the territorial waters of France, Spain, Algeria, Tunisia, Malta, Libya, Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia. The territory of Italy is interspersed with two independent miniature states - the Vatican and San Marino.
A major role in the life of Italy is played by the Mediterranean Sea that washes it and its individual parts: the Tyrrhenian, Adriatic and Ionian seas. ITS coastline stretches for 7500 km. The sea coast of Italy is the most densely populated; there are many industrial and port cities, resorts, the most important roads and railways stretch along the coasts, coastal shipping is developed, regular sea voyages connect Italy with the countries of Europe and other continents.
Italy's position in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, at the crossroads of trade routes between West and East, has always been extremely important for the country - in ancient times, in the Middle Ages, in the Renaissance, and in more recent times. The significance of Italy's modern economic and geographical position is determined primarily by the fact that it is the first of the developed capitalist countries of Western Europe to encounter the flow of Middle Eastern oil that feeds Western European industry. In Italy, many of the most important air routes intersect, connecting the countries of Europe, America, Africa and Asia.
Italy's key strategic position in the Mediterranean basin attracts close attention from NATO leaders, who consider the country to be the centerpiece of their military system in southern Europe and the entire Mediterranean. Italy is an active member of NATO. On its territory there are dozens of main US bases and a number of airfields, training grounds and other military facilities of the US and NATO. Particularly important is the island of Sicily.
Closely linked economically with many European countries, Italy is part of most of the economic and political organizations that arose after the Second World War in the process of capitalist integration of Europe. In particular, it is a member of the European Economic Community and Euratom.
The geographical position of Italy is in many respects favorable for its economic development. The Mediterranean Sea provides Italy with convenient connections with European countries and North Africa, and after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, Italy found itself on trade routes leading to the countries of South and East Asia, East Africa, and Australia. Thus, Italy's geographical position allows it to widely use maritime transport for overseas and coastal transport and at the same time develop connections with its land neighbors.
Natural conditions and natural resources.
Italy is located in the temperate and - for the most part - subtropical zones. This explains the richness and diversity of its northernmost point - Betta d'Italia - located in the Tyrol mountains at 47 northern latitudes; the southernmost is Cape Isola delle Correnti at 36.5 north latitude. (Island of Sicily) not counting small islands.
Physiographically, the territory of Italy is divided into three parts: the mainland, which is the Padan lowland, bordered by a system of alpine ridges and peaks, occupying about 120 thousand km. The Apennine Peninsula, stretched in the shape of a boot for 900 km. into the central part of the Mediterranean Sea with a width of 125 to 230 km. with an area of 130 thousand km; the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and a number of smaller ones with an area of about 59 thousand km.
Certain parts of the peninsular and island territory of the country are characterized by a significantly rugged coastline, the presence of bays, bays and convenient harbors. There are especially many of them on the western coast of the peninsula, washed by the Tyrrhenian Sea. These are the gulfs of Genoa, La Spezia, Gaeta, Neapolitan, Salerno, etc., the bays of Savona, Livorno, Civitavecchia. Major seaports are located here. The coastline washed by the Adriatic Sea is less indented. Its northern section from the state border to Rimini is replete with lagoons and wetlands; to the south, up to the Gargano Peninsula, the high and steep shores of the Adriatic are devoid of any convenient natural harbors and bays; only south coast The Adriatic Sea has separate convenient natural bays, the main of which are Bari and Brindisi.
Italy is a predominantly mountainous country. About 4/5 of its surface is occupied by folded mountains of Alpine age, their foothills and hills. The lowland part is represented by the Padan lowland along the Po River, which occupies over 1/7 of the country's territory, and small areas in the coastal strip of the peninsula. The relief of Italy, which is the result of complex geophysical processes, on the one hand, determines the variety of natural conditions that contribute to the development of agriculture, and on the other hand, it narrows the area of land cultivated by humans, and also complicates and makes the development of transport links between individual parts of the country more expensive.
In the north, Italy is separated from the rest of the continent by the highest powerful arc of the Alps in Europe, which stretches from west to east for 1200 km, arching to the northwest. The Alps are a very complex system consisting of many mountain ranges and ridges separated by longitudinal and transverse valleys. The most high peaks- Mont Blanc (4807 m above sea level), Monte Rosa (4634 m), Cervino (4478 m) - concentrated in the western, most ancient part of the Alps. The Alps are a powerful barrier against the action of air masses from the north. In this powerful mountain belt there are, however, convenient passages that have long been used for economic relations. For example, in the Lepontine Alps the railway runs in the valley of the Ticino River, then heading through the Gotthard Tunnel (15 km) to Switzerland and the Simplon Tunnel (20 km) to France. Railway communication with Austria is carried out through the Brenner Passage in the Venetian Alps along the valley of the Izorco River, a tributary of the Adige. The Alps are actively involved in the economic life of the country; are used here large reserves energy from rivers, construction materials, metal ores and other minerals are being mined, and herds graze on mountain meadows. In recent decades, the construction of high-mountain hydroelectric power stations, roads, and the rapid development of mountain tourism have increased the avalanche danger.
The Maritime Alps turn into the Apennine Mountains, bordering the Ligurian Gulf and stretching further across the entire Apennine Peninsula. The Apennines are longer than the Alps (more than 1500 km), but cannot be compared with it in height. Their highest point, Monte Corno in the Gran Sasso d'Italia massif, reaches only 2914 m above sea level. seas. The relief and geological structure of the Apennines are complex and varied. The mountains are sometimes arranged in curtains with valleys closed between them (in Tuscany), sometimes they stretch in long chains from northwest to southeast (in the Central Apennines), sometimes they break up into separate massifs (in Campania, Basilicata), sometimes they pass into the high plateaus of Calabria . The Apennines are composed mainly of conglomerates, sandstones, limestones, shales, marbles, individual massifs and plateaus of Southern Italy - ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks, also characteristic of the mountains of Sicily and Sardinia.
And in the Alps. and in the Apennines, limestone is widespread and, in connection with this, the most diverse manifestations of karst: sinkholes, wells, fields, grottoes, caves, rivers disappearing underground. The caves attract many tourists; some have constant air humidity, salt and medicinal mud and are used for medicinal purposes. At the same time, karst causes great damage to the economy, drying out and impoverishing the soil, preventing the construction of buildings and roads, causing landslides and landslides.
In Italy, both ancient and modern volcanic rocks of all types (basalts, liparites, tuffs) are widespread, especially characteristic of Tuscany, Lazio, Campania, Sicily, Sardinia. In Italy there are volcanoes of different types and in different stages of development: extinct (Euganean Hills, Alban Mountains), and active (Etna, Vesuvius, Stromboli). Nowadays, the highest (3296 m above sea level) and powerful of the Italian ones is the most active volcanoes - Etna. It erupts regularly every three to five years and even more often. To the southwest of Sicily, underwater eruptions occur from time to time, small islands appear, which are soon washed away by the sea. In a vast area from southern Tuscany to the coast of the Gulf of Naples, other natural phenomena associated with volcanism can be observed - emissions of water vapor under high pressure (Ischia Island), carbon dioxide (Grotto of Dogs in the Phlegrean Fields, near Naples), hot mineral springs in Tuscany, mud volcanoes in the Emilian Apennines.
The only extensive lowland in Italy is the Padana Plain, which occupies most of the Po River basin. It gradually decreases from 400-500 m in the west to sea level in the east. As it declines, not only the landscapes change, but also the nature of the agricultural use of the territory: from orchards and vineyards in the west to livestock, grain and beet-growing areas of the lower reaches of the Po River in the east. The Padana Plain is not only the main granary of Italy, but also the most urbanized and economically developed region of the country.
Despite a fairly large variety of mineral resources, Italy is very insufficiently and unevenly provided with raw materials and energy resources. Deposits of many minerals are small in reserves, scattered throughout the country, and are often located in an inconvenient location for development. Until now, the subsoil has not been sufficiently studied. At the same time, some deposits have been developed since such ancient times that they are now being depleted or have already been exhausted and abandoned. Thus, in 1982, iron ore mining was completely stopped in the country, including on the island of Elba, where iron was mined by the Etruscans.
Italy is much richer in lead-zinc ores with an admixture of silver and other metals. These deposits are associated with the crystalline and metamorphic massif of Sardinia and with the Triassic limestones of the Eastern Alps. The Tuscany region is rich in reserves of pyrites and mercury ore - cinnabar, the reserves of which Italy ranks second in the world; Antimony ores occur in the Devonian limestones of Sardinia. Sulfur deposits, known since the times of Ancient Rome, are concentrated mainly in the area of Caltanissetta on the island of Sicily. The subsoil of Italy is rich in a variety of construction and finishing materials (marble, granite, tuff, etc.). Marble is quarried in a number of places, but especially in the Carrara area. In terms of reserves of other types of raw materials, Italy is poor. Anthracite occurs in small quantities in the Valle d'Aosta region, colloidal lignites in Tuscany, peat and peat-like lignites. There are small deposits of manganese in Central Italy and Liguria. Bauxite, long mined from the karst depressions of Apulia, is now almost exhausted. The island of Sicily has reserves of potash and rock salt, asphalt, and bitumen.
In the post-war years, quite significant (for Italy) oil resources were discovered - in the Padana Lowland, in the Alpine foothills, as well as on the island of Sicily. In addition to these are bituminous shales on the island of Sicily in the Ragusa region, near San Valentino in the Abruzzo e Molise region, and also in the Frosinone region (Lazio). In Sardinia, Tuscany, and Umbria there are small deposits of brown and low-quality coal. Italy's own energy resources satisfy no more than 15% of Italy's needs. Under these conditions, deposits of natural methane gas, usually dissolved in water, which permeates the loose tertiary and quaternary sediments of the Padan Lowland in the lower reaches of the Po River and its underwater continuation - the continental shelf of the Adriatic Sea, are very important for the country's economy. Gas has also been found in sandstones, marls, shales of the Northern, Central and Southern Apennines, in Sicily and off its coast and on the shelf of the Ionian Sea. The general lack of energy resources used in thermal power plants is to some extent compensated for by the presence of fairly rich hydropower reserves in the country.
Development of transport (highlighting maritime).
Transport.
The most important branch of the sphere of circulation. Transportation of goods and labor constitutes that part of the sphere of circulation, which is a continuation of the production process in the sphere of circulation.
In Italy, transport is developing in accordance with the same trends as observed in other European countries - in particular, the share of road transport is increasing, mainly due to a reduction in the share railway transport. This is because road transport is more mobile, requires lower costs for support services and minimizes transshipment work, since it delivers cargo directly to its destination (opportunities that sea and rail transport do not have).
The difference between Italy is that here and in domestic cargo transportation, road transport has acquired an exceptionally high share, while the share of all other modes of transport has fallen to an extremely low level.
This deeply specific situation in Italian transport is explained by the special impact that industry has on this sector. The fact is that such sectors of Italian industry as the automobile, rubber, oil refining and building materials industries are developing the fastest, developing the fastest. Industries producing railway rolling stock are slowly developing their production. Therefore, the first group of industries and the monopolies operating in it were able to give a road direction to the development of Italian transport without much difficulty.
Development of maritime transport in Italy.
In Italy, whose borders are more than 90% washed by the seas and in which most of the territory is coastal areas, the coastal fleet is also important in the internal transportation of passengers and especially cargo. Among the branches of Italian transport, the maritime fleet is of great interest, which is largest international carrier and is important for the development of Italian foreign trade. 90% of goods imported into Italy and 55-60% of exports pass through seaports. The Italian merchant marine fleet performs the most important national economic functions. This is the main reason that it is overwhelmingly under state control.
In the 70s, the importance of maritime transport and shipping for the Italian economy and, first of all, for its foreign trade increased due to shifts in the country's energy balance (more than 86% of total energy needs are met through the import of oil and gas). Shifts The changes that have occurred in recent years in the structure of industry and foreign trade have caused changes in the ratio between different types of ships in the Italian fleet. The rapid development of the oil refining industry has caused rapid growth of the tank fleet. The decline in the importance of coal in the energy sector has caused a decline in the share of the dry cargo fleet. In addition, American coal used in Italy is usually delivered on American ships.
Italian Merchant Navy.
The Italian merchant fleet in the post-war years underwent significant quantitative and general structural changes. On the one hand, they were caused by the decommissioning of outdated and heavily worn-out vessels, and on the other hand, by the replenishment of the fleet with new, larger and more modern vessels. Changes in the composition and structure of the Italian merchant fleet for the period 1874 to 1983 are characterized by the following data.
years
total quantity
total capacity
V
volume
number
e
thousand reg. tons
tankers
bulk carriers and carts
rudo
etc. su ships
hogr
shaft.together reg.tons
%
%
shaft.together reg.tons
%
1974
1421,00
5708,00
1982,00
34,8
1027
17,6
2699
47,6
1975
1413,00
5701,00
1989,00
34,9
1091
19,3
2621
45,8
1976
1403,00
5851,00
2113,00
37
1191
20,4
2492
42,6
1977
1445,00
6219,00
2140,00
34,5
1506
24,2
2573
44,3
1978
1490,00
6624,00
2414,00
36,5
1674
25,3
2536
38,2
1979
1552,00
7038,00
2573,00
36,5
1900
27
2565
36,5
1980
1639,00
7448,00
2721,00
36,5
2089
28,1
2638
35,4
1981
1690,00
8139,00
3027,00
37,2
2455
30,1
2657
32,7
1982
1684,00
8187,00
3119,00
38
2510
30,7
2558
31,3
1983
1726,00
8867,00
3437,00
37,7
2866
32,4
2564
29,9
From the data presented it follows that over 10 years, the specific value of the tonnage of bulk carriers and ore carriers has increased especially sharply, and the share of all other dry cargo ships has decreased.
As of July 1, 1983, tankers, bulk carriers, ore carriers and combination vessels accounted for 70.1% of the total gross tonnage of all seagoing vessels available in Italy. Despite the above-mentioned replenishment of the merchant fleet with new, larger vessels, small and medium-tonnage vessels continue to predominate in its overall composition.
As of July 1, 1983, more than half (57.9%) of all seagoing vessels had a gross tonnage of up to 1,000 reg. tons, and their share accounted for only 4.45% of the total gross tonnage of the fleet. Many of these vessels have long service lives and are gradually being replaced by newer vessels. As of the same date, there were only 23 ships in the merchant fleet with a gross tonnage of more than 50 thousand tons. tons with a service life of less than 4 years.
Most of Italian ships had diesel and diesel-electric installations as main engines. Steam-powered ships account for 14.5% of the total number of seagoing ships.
Brief information on the characteristics of the main groups of transport vessels.
The sea vessels available in Italy as of July 1, 1983, by main type and purpose, were distributed as follows.
types of vessels
number of ships
total gross capacity, reg. tons
specific value RHV, %
1. Tankers for transporting oil and petroleum products
344
3449184
2,98
2.Gas carriers
26
133027
2,01
3.Tankers for liquid chemicals
17
21070
3,23
4.Combination vessels
21
1145231
5,86
5. Bulk carriers and ore carriers
93
1721040
3,24
6. Dry cargo ships for transportation. gene. cargo
663
1289842
1,84
7. Container ships and ro-ro
6
69661
1,9
8.Passenger ships
25
533288
17,77
9. Ferries, etc.
157
334784
7,99
10.Fishing
225
90847
1,3
11.Tugs
213
47199
4,34
12.Other vessels
33
30760
-
Total
1726
8867205
2,86
Tanker fleet. For the transportation of oil and petroleum products, there are a total of 320 tankers with a total gross tonnage of 3,437,391 reg. t (total deadweight 5,901,231 t). For coastal shipping and bunkering operations there were 24 small vessels with a total gross tonnage of 11,793 gross tonnage. More than half of the tanker fleet capacity is represented by vessels less than nine years old, incl. 11 tankers with a gross tonnage of 40-50 thousand tons. tons each and 10 tankers with a gross tonnage of 50-140 thousand reg. tons each less than 4 years old.
Gas carriers and vessels for transporting liquid chemicals. For the transportation of liquefied gas there were 26 small vessels with a total gross tonnage of 133,027 reg. tons Some of these ships are used for transportation from Algeria to the southern ports of Europe. For the transport of liquid chemicals there are 17 small vessels with a total gross tonnage of 21,070 tons. tons
Combined vessels, bulk carriers and ore carriers. This is the second largest and most important group of cargo ships. There are 114 ships with a total gross tonnage of 2,866,271 registered. tons (total deadweight 4,859,207 tons). This group includes: 21 combined vessels with a total gross tonnage of 1,145,231 reg. tons and 93 ore carriers, bulk carriers and bulk ore carriers sum. gross tonnage 1,721,040 reg. tons
The group of dry cargo ships (including cargo-passenger ships) is the largest, with 663 ships of various types and purposes with a total gross tonnage of 10,876 reg. tons Most of this group are small vessels with a gross tonnage of up to 2000 tons. tons each. This group is replenished with new ships on a limited scale and mainly with multi-purpose dry cargo ships, including those adapted for partial transportation of containers.
Container ships and container-trailer ships (ro-ro). On July 1, 1083, this group included 6 ships with a total gross tonnage of 69,661 reg. tons This group was replenished with container ships, which are used for transportation on the Far Eastern and Australian lines.
Passenger, ferry and other cargo-passenger ships. The Italian merchant fleet has 25 large passenger ships with a total gross tonnage of 533.3 thousand reg. tons This group includes 157 ferry and other cargo-passenger vessels with a total gross tonnage of 337.8 thousand reg. tons, which are mainly used to service domestic transport, and only a small part of them operate on short-term international lines in the Mediterranean Sea area.
The Italian merchant fleet was replenished with new ships, mainly Italian-built. Placement of orders abroad is allowed only for certain large-tonnage vessels, for the construction of which in Italy there is not sufficient equipment, experience and for other reasons. As of March 1983, Italy ranked 5th in the tonnage of ships built for its national fleet (after Great Britain, Liberia, Japan and Norway).
Economy of Italy.
Italy entered the path of capitalist development later than Great Britain and France - in late XIX century, after political unification ended in 1870. However economic development the country, slowed down by strong remnants of feudalism, the poverty of the peasantry, and the weakness of the fuel and raw material base, progressed slowly.
On the eve of the First World War, Italy remained a backward agrarian country. Only Northern Italy stood out for its higher level of economic development: developed industry developed here, and agriculture was more intensive.
Despite economic weakness, the Italian bourgeoisie took an active part in the struggle for the redivision of the world. The arms race policy gave impetus to the development of heavy industry. New industries have received great development - automotive, aviation, electrical engineering, chemical (in particular, the production of rayon). The Second World War caused great damage to the Italian economy. Nevertheless, in the post-war period, Italian industry developed at a fairly high pace. The growth of industrial production is largely due to the influx of foreign capital.
Italy, in terms of its economic position, occupies an intermediate position between the most economically developed capitalist countries, led by the USA and Germany, and countries with an average level of development of the productive forces. In terms of its share in the capitalist industrial production of the world (5% in 1985), it ranks fifth after the USA, Japan, Germany and France. But in terms of national income per capita, Italy is inferior not only to these countries, but also to many others, surpassing only Greece, Spain and Ireland in Western Europe.
As in other highly developed countries, in Italy industry is the leading sector of the economy, although it employs a smaller part of the economically active population than the intensively and disproportionately growing service sector. The cost of industrial products is four times higher than the cost of agricultural products, in which 5.5 times less capital is invested annually than in industry. Industrial products dramatically dominate Italian exports.
A significant part of Italy's national wealth is in the hands of monopolies, 11 of which are among the largest concerns in the world. They dominate in the chemical and electrical industries (Montadison), the automotive industry (FIAT), and the rubber industry (Pirelli).
At the same time, there are a great many medium-sized, small and tiny firms in the country, mainly in the light and food industries, as well as in the production of household electrical appliances, equipment for processing synthetic materials, and in some sub-sectors of the machine tool industry. Since the 70s, there has been a noticeable trend towards a reduction in large and an increase in the role of small and medium-sized firms and enterprises.
The Italian state actively and in various forms intervenes in the country's economy: its specialized bodies participate in joint-stock companies as controlling shareholders, and industrial enterprises are created in accordance with various government programs. The state has become the largest entrepreneur in the country. Its positions are especially strong in energy, metallurgy, and shipbuilding. He owns many light industry enterprises. The largest banks were also nationalized. The pace of development of the public sector exceeds the development of the Italian economy as a whole. In modern conditions, state intervention in the economy is not limited to helping individual monopolistic associations develop the least profitable industries or those requiring particularly large capital investments. The main goal of government intervention is to ensure the continuity of the reproduction process, preserve and strengthen the capitalist system in the country.
A new important feature of the development of state-monopoly capitalism in Italy was the nationwide long-term programming of the economy, reflecting the increased degree of concentration and centralization of production and capital, increased monopolization and nationalization of the economy. Some industries (transport, communications, public Works etc.) are financed primarily on the basis of economic programs. Italy's largest and continuously operating program since 1950 is aimed at developing the economy of the South.
The Italian government encourages the influx of foreign capital, which plays an important role in the country's economy. Most of the investments are directed into mechanical engineering, chemistry and energy, and a significant share is invested in the service sector. The predominant capital is from the USA, France, Germany, Great Britain, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein.
Many aspects of Italy's economic life are determined by its participation in the EEC. The specialization of production that emerged within the EEC forced the Italian economy to adapt to new market conditions and accelerated its structural transformations. In the common market system, Italy acts as an importing country of industrial products (mainly machinery and equipment) and minor food products (fruits, vegetables, wine) and at the same time as an importing country of basic food products and main types of mineral and agricultural raw materials for its industry.
As in other countries, in Italy the economy develops spontaneously and unevenly. The “economic miracle” of the 60s, when Italy was second only to Japan in terms of industrial development, turned out to be short-lived. It was followed by a recession and then the severe energy and general economic crisis of 1973-1975. In 1982, the country's economy again entered a period of crisis: the gross national product was declining (-1.2% in 1983), inflation was increasing, the volume of foreign trade was decreasing, the level of personal consumption of the population was decreasing, unemployment and the cost of living were growing. Industrial capacity utilization in 1983 was the lowest for the entire post-war period - 71%.
Since the crisis of the 70s, a new phenomenon has spread in Italy - the so-called hidden economy: in many industries, bypassing collective agreements, tax laws, etc. enterprises that are not registered anywhere operate. they employ the unemployed, women interested in part-time work or home work, students and pensioners in need of additional income. The age-old problem of disproportionate development of certain parts of the country, the contrast between the level of economic and social development of Northern and Southern Italy, remains acute.
General characteristics of the industry.
The general condition, pace and nature of development of the Italian economy are determined by its most important sphere - industry, which accounts for about 2/5 of those employed in the economy and the same share of national income. Italy stands out for its extremely low share of mining and high share of manufacturing in the number of employees, fixed capital and especially in the total value of industrial output. This is explained by the lack of any significant reserves of the most important minerals in the country.
The Italian manufacturing industry relies mainly on imported raw materials. Heavy industry predominates, the main role in which belongs to mechanical engineering. Electric power, metallurgy, chemistry and petrochemistry have also developed significantly.
As a result of the radical restructuring of the energy base that has occurred in recent decades, the leading role in it has shifted from hydropower and imported coal to oil, which provides more than 60% of all energy consumed. It is followed by natural gas (15.5%), coal and lignites (8.5%), hydropower (7.6%) and nuclear energy (0.3%). At the same time, Italy is forced to import almost all of its oil consumption, 80% of solid fuel and 44% of natural gas.
The most powerful oil refining industry in Western Europe grew from oil imported by sea. Italy is one of the largest exporters of petroleum products in Western Europe. The energy crisis has forced us to look for ways to save energy resources in general and oil in particular. In the 80s, the total capacity of the Italian oil refining industry decreased from 206 million tons. crude oil per year in 1980 to 150 million tons. in 1983, several factories were closed.
Electric power plays a vital role in the country's economy. The total installed capacity of power plants is 49.4 million kW, of which 64.4% are thermal power plants, 32% are hydroelectric and pumped storage power plants, 2.6% are nuclear and 1% are geothermal. Every year the country produces 180-190 billion kWh of electricity. Most of the electricity is obtained at thermal power plants, operating mainly on fuel oil; the first place was given to them by hydroelectric power plants, since water resources almost completely exhausted. In recent years, Italy has preferred to build pumped storage stations. Italy was a pioneer in the construction of pumped storage power plants (1908). Almost simultaneously, the world's first geothermal power plants appeared (1905). In the 60s, Italy was one of the first to build large nuclear power plants. There are 4 nuclear power plants in the country with a total capacity of 1.4 million kW.
Dependence on imports of fuel and raw materials is very significant in the iron and steel industry. In 1986, 10.3 million tons were smelted in the country. cast iron and about 22 million tons. become. Italy ranks 5th in steel production. Metallurgical plants are located either near ports or gravitate towards sales markets - large centers mechanical engineering. It is in the port centers that the country's four largest full-cycle plants are located, owned by the Finsider state association (Genoa-Cornigliano, Piombino, Naples-Bagnoli and Taranto. Most steelmaking and steel rolling plants are concentrated in the old industrial cities of the North-West. In the foothills of the Alps and electrometallurgical enterprises are located in the Alpine valleys. The Italian ferrous metallurgy enters the world market mainly with thin cold-rolled steel and steel pipes. Italy ranks fourth in the world in pipe production. In recent years, the Italian ferrous metallurgy has experienced significant difficulties in its development due to the the fact that the “Common Market”, under pressure from the United States, decided to limit steel production in the “dozen” countries.
In the production of non-ferrous and light metals, those industries that are better provided with local ore reserves stand out - the smelting of aluminum, lead, zinc and mercury. During the crisis years, aluminum smelting decreased from 274 thousand tons in 1986 to 194 thousand tons in 1988. Most aluminum smelters are located in the energy-rich North-East.
The lead-zinc industry processes imported polymetallic ores and local ones. Energy-intensive zinc smelting is located near large power plants (in the cities of Porto Marghere, Monteponi, Porto Vesme, Crotone). Lead smelters are grouped mainly in Sardinia, close to deposits of polymetallic ores.
In recent years, Italy has lost the world lead in mercury production to Spain. This ancient production was rebuilt in accordance with environmental requirements and today about 2 thousand tons are produced. in year.
Using rich deposits of dolomite, Italy has become one of the first places in the world in the production of magnesium. In 1986, 85 thousand tons of magnesium ores were mined and 7.8 thousand tons were smelted. magnesium
The leading branch of Italian industry is mechanical engineering. It employs 2.2 million people, produces 1/4 of all manufacturing products and 2/5 of Italian exports. Italy is one of the largest suppliers of cars to the world market. In terms of production size it ranks 5th. Mechanical engineering is characterized by a high concentration of production and capital and is in the hands of a few large associations that produce complex and varied products. The most developed export mechanical engineering (production of automobiles, electric locomotives, carriages, shipbuilding). Most of the automobile production was monopolized by the FIAT concern, the most powerful private company in Italy and one of the largest monopolies in the world. The concern's factories are scattered throughout the country and produce small and mini-cars, trucks, buses, various engines, airplanes, ships, locomotives, tractors, equipment for the subway, power plants, and airports.
FIAT left little space in automobile production for other companies - Ferrari, Maserati, Lancia, and the state company Alfa Romeo. Almost all factories are located in industrial centers North. Several factories produce motorcycles and scooters. Italy occupies one of the first places in the world in the production of bicycles and mopeds.
The origins of Italian shipbuilding are lost in the depths of centuries. The development of this traditional industry is determined by historical reasons and geographical conditions. In recent years, orders for tankers have fallen sharply, requiring more container ships, mixed-use vessels, and specialized vessels for underwater drilling and undersea exploration.
About 85% of all shipbuilding capacity belongs to the state group Fincantieri. The country's largest shipyards are located in Monfalcone on the Adriatic Sea, as well as in Trieste, Venice, and Ancona. Sta- The oldest area of Italian shipbuilding is the Ligurian coast (Genoa, Livorno, La Spezia). In the South, the main shipbuilding centers are Naples, Taranto, Messina, Palermo, Castellammare di Stabia.
Etc.................