African plateau. East Africa. Physiographic characteristics of South Africa

and others...

On the gentle slopes of the eastern plateaus, facing inland, there is still quite a lot of precipitation; treeless terrain with a dense cover of tall grasses prevails there (). This type of landscape is called the "veld" in South Africa.

As you move westward, the amount of precipitation decreases and the vegetation takes on an increasingly xerophytic appearance. It consists of various bulbous plants that turn green and bloom only during a short period of rain, low-growing prickly acacias, and numerous types of aloe. In the Kalahari there are completely barren rocky areas where plants do not form a continuous cover (). Wild watermelons are very characteristic of the Kalahari, the lashes of which cover large areas. Obviously, all known cultivated types of watermelons originate from here. When there is a great lack of moisture, watermelons with their water reserves save people and animals from thirst.

The vegetation of the Namib Desert is even poorer, where only isolated specimens of Welwitschia are found, anchored on the sand with powerful roots, and low-growing thorny bushes ().

The shores of drying lakes and swamps in the depressions of the Kalahari and the upper reaches of the Zambezi are covered with more moisture-loving vegetation (), which serves as a refuge for wild animals.

East Africa is a subcontinent located in the east of the continent, uniting two physical and geographical countries: the Ethiopian Highlands and the Somali Peninsula and the East African Highlands (plateau). The region is elongated in the submeridional direction (between 18° north and south latitude). It begins in the north at the southeastern edge of the Sahara, in the west it has fairly clear orographically determined boundaries with the regions of Northern and Central Africa, in the south it is separated from similar structures by a fault system South Africa, reaching the tectonic valley of the lower reaches of the river. Zambezi. In the east, the subcontinent faces the Indian Ocean and its seas.

The subcontinent is located in the most tectonically active part of the African platform in the zone of development of a grandiose, complex system of continental rifts, unparalleled both in length and in amplitudes of vertical movements.

The East African rift zones occupy a special place in shaping the nature of the region. They are associated with relief features, mainly mountainous and plateau, widespread development of volcanism, including modern ones, and increased seismicity. Rifts are expressed as grabens, the bottoms of which are often occupied by lakes.

The region is within the equatorial monsoon zone of both hemispheres. A characteristic feature of its climate is the extreme differentiation of moisture conditions not only across seasons, but also within the territory. To a large extent, this depends on the fragmentation of the relief and configuration coastline.

East Africa is distinguished by great diversity of soil and vegetation cover - from evergreen wet tropical forests on the windward mountain slopes to the desert landscapes of the Afar depression.
Large areas are occupied by savannas different types. Altitudinal zones are expressed in the mountains.
East Africa is the main watershed of the continent. This is where the rivers of the basins originate Indian Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and the Congo river system leading to the Atlantic.
Animal world The subcontinent is very rich and diverse: all the main representatives of the African savannah fauna live here.
East Africa is an area of fairly dense settlement and long-standing agricultural land use.
The subcontinent has large mineral reserves. Due to human activities, the nature of the subcontinent has been significantly changed.
East Africa is considered to be the ancestral home of man. Perhaps this is where the species Homo sapiens arose as a result of the evolution of ancient primates.

Ethiopian Highlands and Somali Plateau

This physiographic country includes the Ethiopian Highlands, the Afar Depression, the plateau and the coastal lowlands of the Somali Peninsula. In the west, the region borders on the White Nile Basin, in the south on the East African Highlands, in the north and east it faces the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and directly to the Indian Ocean. Its territory includes Ethiopia, Somalia and Djibouti; in 1993, Eritrea separated from Ethiopia.

As a result of active tectonic movements, a very diverse and even contrasting relief in height and shape was formed here. The main part of the region is occupied by the Ethiopian Highlands, which is a highly elevated block of the African Platform within the Eritrean Anteclise (Nubian-Arabian Arch), bounded by faults on almost all sides.

The height reaches 3000-4000 meters, highest point- Ras Dashan city (4623 meters). The steep stepped slopes of the highland make it difficult to access, which is why it is often called a bastion massif. Fissure eruptions of trachyte and basalt lavas occurred along fault lines. Covers were formed, with a thickness of up to 2000 meters in places. Stepped lava plateaus - ambas - are characteristic of the highland topography. Cut through in all directions by deep erosion-tectonic valleys-canyons, the ambas have the appearance of flat-topped remnants with individual volcanoes. Some of them were active in historical time. Faults define the shorelines of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, limit the zone of subsidence - the Afar depression. Its bottom, covered with lavas, consists of low plateaus with isolated volcanic cones. Some basins lie below sea level. Lake Assal is the lowest place on the African continent (-153 meters). The Ethiopian graben in the south separates the highlands from the plateau of the Somali peninsula; they descend in steps to the southeast to the Indian Ocean. The bottom stage is a wide, low-lying coastal plain. The eastern edge of the peninsula is also limited by a fault along which the ocean floor subsided.

In general, the climate of the country is subequatorial, variablely humid, but the fragmentation of the relief determines the diversity and contrast of the climatic conditions of the region. Local factors of climate formation play no less a role here than general patterns.

Precipitation is mainly due to the summer equatorial monsoon southwest direction. Most of the moisture (1000 mm per year or more) is received by the windward southwestern and western slopes of the Ethiopian Highlands. The northern slopes are influenced by tropical air. They are dry. Most of the Somali Peninsula receives little precipitation (250-500 mm per year). Even along the Indian Ocean coast, the climate is arid as the southwest monsoon flows along the coastline. The driest areas are the Ethiopian Graben, the coasts of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, and especially the Afar Depression. The entire region, except for mountainous areas, is characterized by high air temperatures: average monthly - not lower than 20°C, maximum - up to 40-50°C. The Afar Depression is one of the hottest places: the average January there is 24°C, the average July is 36°C. The Ethiopian Highlands are much cooler. The altitudinal climatic zone can be traced here:

colla belt (hot) - up to an altitude of 1500-1800 meters; average monthly temperatures - 20°C and above, precipitation on windward slopes - 1000-1500 mm per year;
war-dega belt (moderate) - up to an altitude of 2400-2500 meters; slight seasonal temperature fluctuations: in December - no lower than 13°C, in April (the warmest month) - no higher than 16-18°C; precipitation - 1500-2000 mm per year;
degas belt (cold) - on high mountain ranges; average monthly temperatures do not exceed 16°C, in winter there are severe frosts and snow falls; however, there are no glaciers.

Thus, the region combines dry and hot climates of the low plains, wet and cool climates of the highlands and plateaus, humid and hot climates of the Kolla mountain belt and the adjacent lowland areas.

The river network is well developed in the Ethiopian Highlands. Here originate one of the sources of the Nile - the Blue Nile, the right tributaries of the White Nile - Sobat and the Nile - Atbara, Omo. The Blue Nile carries twice as much water into the main river as the White Nile. Its flow is regulated by Lake Tana. There are small lakes at the bottom of the Ethiopian graben. On the Somali Peninsula, the river network is poorly developed, most rivers dry up, and in the Afar Depression there is practically no surface flow, there are only a few small salt lakes. The river flows into one of them. Awash flowing down from the highlands.

The complex structure of the relief and contrasts in climatic conditions determine the diversity of vegetation cover in the Ethiopian-Somali region. In the Ethiopian Highlands, altitudinal zonation is extremely pronounced.

On the humid western slopes in the colla belt and in deep valleys with good moisture, dense evergreen tropical forests grow, similar in species composition and structure to equatorial ones. The watershed plateaus are occupied by savannas. Thickets of thorny bushes and xerophytic woodlands dominate on dry leeward slopes. The war-dega belt was once dominated by forests of cedars and yews, which have been largely cut down. The thickets of tree-like juniper and open forests of deciduous trees - wild olive and fig tree - are better preserved. The main part of the belt is currently occupied by mountain savanna with candelabra-shaped milkweeds, umbrella acacias, giant sycamores and a rich grass cover of cereals. In the lower part of the degas belt, coniferous forests of junipers, podocarpus, etc. grow. Above, mountain meadows predominate - grasslands with groves of cousso trees and individual tree-like junipers. Even higher, thickets of giant St. John's worts, tree-like heathers, and communities of xerophytic bush grasses appear. The uppermost parts of the mountains are covered with rocky areas, which are covered with snow in winter. Semi-desert and desert vegetation is developed in the Afar Depression and on the coasts of the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean. The interior plateaus of the Somali Peninsula are dominated by desert savannah landscapes.

The fauna is common in savannas and tropical forests of Africa, including mountain ones.

In the war-dega belt there are monkeys that cannot tolerate constant heat - hamadryas, gverets, geladas. The fauna of the region has a relatively high degree of preservation even outside protected areas. Thus, elephants live in the forests of the lower mountain belt, and this is one of the few places where they do not live in reserves.

The Ethiopian Highlands have significant agroclimatic and land resources. Its territory as a whole receives sufficient rainfall for agriculture. Conditions for growing valuable crops and for the life of people are especially favorable in the war-degas belt with its relatively cool, constantly humid climate and fertile dark red and chernozem-like soils.

Most of the Ethiopian population lives here. This is one of the ancient centers of agriculture. They grow grain crops, tobacco, oilseeds, citrus fruits, and grapes. The name of the belt, translated from the language of local peoples, means “grape zone”. This belt is considered the birthplace of the coffee tree. In the south and southwest, coffee plantations rise to 2000 meters. Some grains also come from here - durum wheat, rye, barley, etc. Only some flat valleys are waterlogged, swampy and unfavorable for life. In the Kolla belt, with a hot, humid climate, the population is sparse, but in some places there are plantations of coffee, cotton, and sugar cane. Cattle breeding is developed in dry areas. Residents of the dega, a cold zone, also breed livestock (zebu, sheep, goats), and only in its lower part up to an altitude of 2800 meters do they grow the local cereal teff. At the lower border of this belt at an altitude of 2440 m is the capital of Ethiopia - Addis Ababa.

The arid areas of the Somali Peninsula are not suitable for agriculture. The population is concentrated in river valleys and oases, where tropical cash crops are grown on irrigated lands: bananas, sugar cane, cotton, date palm, and grains and legumes for their own consumption. The majority of the population is engaged in cattle breeding. In many places in the Afar, desert coasts, and interior parts of the Somali plateau, even the water in wells is brackish. There is practically no settled population there. In the arid areas of this region, well-preserved bone remains of animals have been found, including ancient primates, which are considered the ancestors of humans.

Large reserves of ore minerals are concentrated in the depths of the region. There is gold, platinum, ores of copper, nickel, manganese, iron, niobium, uranium and thorium. There are also deposits of piezoquartz, potassium and table salts, native sulfur, mica, and gypsum. But only a small part of this wealth is used.

The main problem in the region is the lack of water in many parts of it. There are severe droughts that cause famine. Drought in the 70s XX century in Somalia led to a huge reduction in livestock and the death of large numbers of people. The fight against drought is one of the most pressing problems in the region. Despite the fairly good preservation of the fauna, many animal species have been severely exterminated and are even on the verge of destruction. Several have been created to protect them. national parks and reserves in Ethiopia and reserves in Somalia. They protect not only animals, but also typical and interesting landscapes, for example, in the Awash Park, where there are manifestations of volcanic activity. Palm forests around hot springs and riverine gallery forests are subject to protection.

East African Highlands

Most of this physical-geographical country is located in the Southern Hemisphere. In the north, the East African Highlands borders the Ethiopian along faults in the area of Lake Rudolf, and to the south it extends to the valley of the river. Zambezi. The western border with the Congo Basin follows the watershed between the rivers of the Congo and Great African Lakes basins. In the east the region faces the Indian Ocean. Within its borders are Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, Tanzania and northern Mozambique. In many natural features, this physical and geographical country is similar to the Ethiopian Highlands. Tectonic mobility, fragmented relief, manifestations of ancient and modern volcanism, subequatorial climate with sharp internal differences, diversity of landscapes with the dominance of savanna formations determine the similarity of these regions. The rift zones of the East African Highlands are genetically related to the Ethiopian graben, which, in fact, is their continuation to the north. However, the region has a number natural features, distinguishing it from the Ethiopian-Somali country.

With no less tectonic mobility than in the Ethiopian Highlands, the areas of lava covers are not so large in the East African Highlands. There are volcanic massifs, often of considerable height: Kilimanjaro (peak Kibo - 5895 meters, the highest point of the mainland), Kenya (5199 meters), Meru (4567 meters), Karisimbi (4507 meters), Elgon (4322 meters), etc. Among the large ones and there are many small active volcanoes.

The highlands are located within the anteclise of the ancient African platform with outcrops of crystalline rocks, in places overlain by continental sediments and lava covers. In the Cenozoic, the rising arch of the anteclise was broken by rift faults. There are three branches of continental rifts. The Western Rift runs along the entire western edge of the highlands. Within its boundaries, a system of grabens has been formed - from the graben occupied by the river valley. Albert Nile, in the north, to the tectonic valley of the lower reaches of the river. Zambezi. Most of them are a chain of narrow, long and deep lake basins (the bottom of Lake Tanganyika lies more than 600 meters below sea level). Between them and along the sides of the grabens there are horst and arch rises with an average height of 1000-3000 meters. As a rule, active volcanoes are confined to them. Between lakes Albert and Lake Edward rises the Rwenzori (Mountains of the Moon) massif, reaching 5109 meters at its highest point - Peak Margherita. The entire zone is characterized by high seismicity. The central rift begins in the north with the basin of Lake Rudolf and in the south in the basin of Lake Nyasa it joins the western branch. Here, a flat-bottomed valley (the Great Valley, or Rift Valley) with steep slopes (“rift shoulders”) formed in the graben. At its bottom there are many small salt lakes. Within this zone, lavas erupted, and then the central type was formed, which, including the highest massifs of the highlands, rise along tectonic cracks. Calderas are also characteristic of this zone, including the famous Ngorongoro crater with a diameter of 22 km. The eastern fault zone descends in fault steps towards the Indian Ocean and determines the rectilinear contours of the coastline. The spaces between the rift zones are dominated by plateau relief, more or less leveled, with remnant mountains and hills.

The subequatorial climate of the highlands has its own characteristics.

In the southern part, winds with an eastern component dominate throughout the year, since the northeastern winter monsoon of the Northern Hemisphere does not change direction when passing through the equator, being drawn into the South African baric minimum. In the north, the southwest monsoon dominates in summer. Winter precipitation is orographic, so only the windward slopes of the mountains are irrigated. The humidity of different areas within the highlands is not the same. Largest quantity precipitation (up to 2000-3000 mm per year) receive high mountain ranges. In the northwest and southwest of the country and on the mountainous coast south of 5° south. w. 1000-1500 mm falls. In the rest of the highlands, annual precipitation is 700-1000 mm, and in closed depressions and in the extreme northeast - no more than 500 mm. Due to the general high hypsometric level of the East African Highlands, air temperatures in most of its territory are relatively low (monthly averages are not higher than 19-20°C). Only at low altitudes, mainly on the coast, they rise to 23-28°C. Annual amplitudes average monthly temperatures- up to 5-6°C. In the mountains above 2000 meters there are frosts, at an altitude of 3500 meters snow falls, the highest peaks (Kilimanjaro, Kenya, Rwenzori) have ice caps.

The East African Highlands - the “roof of Africa” - is the highest region of the continent and the main watershed of the Indian, Atlantic Oceans and Mediterranean Seas. The river starts here. Nile, from here numerous tributaries of the river flow. Congo (Lualaba), r. Zambezi, a large number of rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean. The Highlands are distinguished by one of the largest concentrations of lakes on Earth. Great African lakes, occupying grabens in the Western Rift Zone, have an elongated shape and great depths(Tanganyika - up to 1435 meters). They are usually flowing and fresh. In a vast tectonic basin outside the rift zones lies the second largest freshwater body of water in the world - Lake Victoria. Large masses of water in large lakes have a significant impact on local climates. At the bottoms of the grabens in the Central Rift there are many salt lakes - Natron, Nakuru, etc.

Most of the highlands are occupied by typical savannas and woodlands.

In the driest northeastern regions, the same plant groups as on the Somali Peninsula (desert savannas) are common. The drainless basins of salt lakes are surrounded by salt marshes with halophytic vegetation. In the western regions with a humid climate, the lower slopes of the mountains and lake shores were occupied by hylaea, which are now large areas replaced by mixed forests with an admixture of deciduous species and tall grass savannas. Altitudinal zones are expressed in the mountains. Among the belts, the “belt of fogs” with mountain hylea (2300-2500 meters) and the belt of mountain meadows with giant lobelias and tree-like groundsels stand out. The nival belt begins at an altitude of 4,800 meters.

Nowhere in the world is there such a diversity of large animals, especially the inhabitants of the savannas.

Antelope, buffalo, zebra, giraffe and other herbivores once densely populated the highlands. They were hunted by large predators (lions, leopards, cheetahs, etc.). There were many elephants, rhinoceroses, hippos, and various monkeys. Long-term extermination has caused a strong decrease in the number of animals, some of the species are on the verge of extinction. Countries in the region have created numerous National parks and reserves in which the number of animals is regulated. Among the world famous parks are Virunga, Kagera, Mount Kenya, Kilimanjaro, Serengeti, Ngorongoro (a natural “aviary” limited by the slopes of the caldera), Nakuru, where 370 species of birds live near the lake, including giant colonies of flamingos. Mountain gorillas live in the southern protected part of Kivu Park.

Scientific research is conducted in protected areas. The countries of the region receive substantial income from foreign tourists, who are attracted here by exotic fauna and flora, unusual landscapes, and the possibility of sport hunting under licenses

In addition to land, agroclimatic and biological resources The East African Highlands have unique freshwater reserves concentrated in the African Great Lakes, which are used for water supply, as transport routes, and as a source of fish. The subsoil of the region is rich: there is gold, diamonds, various ores, and salts are mined, including sodium carbonate - natron.

The region is populated quite densely, but unevenly. Most people live on the shores of fresh lakes. Maasai pastoralists roam the savannas of Kenya and Tanzania. Almost all landscapes of the East African Highlands have undergone anthropogenic changes.

Africa is a part of the world with an area of 30.3 million km 2 with islands, this is the second place after Eurasia, 6% of the entire surface of our planet and 20% of the land.

Geographical position

Africa is located in the North and Eastern Hemisphere(most), a small part in the South and West. Like all large fragments of the ancient continent, Gondwana has a massive outline, with no large peninsulas or deep bays. The length of the continent from north to south is 8 thousand km, from west to east - 7.5 thousand km. In the north it is washed by the waters of the Mediterranean Sea, in the northeast by the Red Sea, in the southeast by the Indian Ocean, in the west by the Atlantic Ocean. Africa is separated from Asia by the Suez Canal, and from Europe by the Strait of Gibraltar.

Main geographical characteristics

Africa lies on an ancient platform, which causes its flat surface, which in some places is dissected by deep river valleys. On the coast of the mainland there are small lowlands, the north-west is the location of the Atlas Mountains, Northern part, almost entirely occupied by the Sahara Desert - the Ahaggar and Tibetsi highlands, the east - the Ethiopian Highlands, the southeast - the East African Plateau, the extreme south - the Cape and Drakensberg Mountains. The highest point in Africa is the Kilimanjaro volcano (5895 m, Masai plateau), the lowest is 157 meters below ocean level in Lake Assal. Along the Red Sea, in the Ethiopian Highlands and to the mouth of the Zambezi River, the largest fault in the world stretches earth's crust, which is characterized by frequent seismic activity.

The following rivers flow through Africa: Congo (Central Africa), Niger ( West Africa), Limpopo, Orange, Zambezi (South Africa), as well as one of the deepest and longest rivers in the world - the Nile (6852 km), flowing from south to north (its sources are located on the East African Plateau, and it flows into delta, into the Mediterranean Sea). Rivers are characterized by high water content exclusively in the equatorial belt, due to the large amount of precipitation there; most of them are characterized by high flow rates and have many rapids and waterfalls. In lithospheric faults filled with water, lakes were formed - Nyasa, Tanganyika, the largest freshwater lake Africa and the second largest area after Lake Superior ( North America) - Victoria (its area is 68.8 thousand km 2, length 337 km, maximum depth - 83 m), the largest salty closed lake is Chad (its area is 1.35 thousand km 2, located on the southern edge of the world's greatest desert, the Sahara).

Due to Africa's location between two tropical zones, it is characterized by high total solar radiation, which gives the right to call Africa the hottest continent on Earth (the highest temperature on our planet was recorded in 1922 in Al-Aziziya (Libya) - +58 C 0 in the shadow).

On the territory of Africa, such natural zones are distinguished as evergreen equatorial forests (the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, the Congo basin), in the north and south turning into mixed deciduous-evergreen forests, then there is a natural zone of savannas and woodlands, extending to Sudan, East and South Africa, to In northern and southern Africa, savannas give way to semi-deserts and deserts (Sahara, Kalahari, Namib). In the southeastern part of Africa there is a small zone of mixed coniferous-deciduous forests, on the slopes of the Atlas Mountains there is a zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs. Natural zones of mountains and plateaus are subject to the laws of altitudinal zonation.

African countries

The territory of Africa is divided between 62 countries, 54 are independent, sovereign states, 10 dependent territories belonging to Spain, Portugal, Great Britain and France, the rest are unrecognized, self-proclaimed states - Galmudug, Puntland, Somaliland, Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic(SADR). For a long time, Asian countries were foreign colonies of various European states and only gained independence by the middle of the last century. Depending on the geographical location Africa is divided into five regions: Northern, Central, Western, Eastern and Southern Africa.

List of African countries

Nature

Mountains and plains of Africa

Most of the African continent is plain. There are mountain systems, highlands and plateaus. They are presented:

Atlas Mountains in the northwestern part of the continent;
the Tibesti and Ahaggar highlands in the Sahara Desert;
Ethiopian Highlands in the eastern part of the mainland;
Drakensberg Mountains in the south.

The highest point of the country is the Kilimanjaro volcano, 5,895 m high, belonging to the East African Plateau in the southeastern part of the continent...

Deserts and savannas

The largest desert zone of the African continent is located in the northern part. This is the Sahara Desert. On the southwest side of the continent is another smaller desert, the Namib, and from there into the continent to the east there is the Kalahari Desert.

The savannah territory occupies the bulk of Central Africa. In area it is much larger than the northern and southern parts of the mainland. The territory is characterized by the presence of pastures typical of savannas, low shrubs and trees. The height of herbaceous vegetation varies depending on the amount of precipitation. These can be practically desert savannas or tall grasses, with a grass cover from 1 to 5 m in height...

Rivers

The longest river in the world, the Nile, is located on the African continent. The direction of its flow is from south to north.

The list of major water systems of the mainland includes the Limpopo, Zambezi and Orange River, as well as the Congo, which flows through Central Africa.

On the Zambezi River is the famous Victoria Falls, 120 meters high and 1,800 meters wide...

Lakes

The list of large lakes on the African continent includes Lake Victoria, which is the second largest freshwater body of water in the world. Its depth reaches 80 m, and its area is 68,000 square km. Two more large lakes continent: Tanganyika and Nyasa. They are located in faults of lithospheric plates.

There is Lake Chad in Africa, which is one of the world's largest endorheic relict lakes that have no connection with the world's oceans...

Seas and oceans

The African continent is washed by the waters of two oceans: the Indian and the Atlantic. Also off its shores are the Red and Mediterranean Seas. From the outside Atlantic Ocean in the southwestern part the waters form the deep Gulf of Guinea.

Despite the location of the African continent, the coastal waters are cool. This is influenced by the cold currents of the Atlantic Ocean: the Canary in the north and the Bengal in the southwest. From the Indian Ocean, the currents are warm. The largest are Mozambique, in northern waters, and Agulhas, in southern...

Forests of Africa

Forests make up a little more than a quarter of the entire territory of the African continent. Here are subtropical forests growing on the slopes of the Atlas Mountains and the valleys of the ridge. Here you can find holm oak, pistachio, strawberry tree, etc. Coniferous plants, represented by Aleppo pine, Atlas cedar, juniper and other types of trees, grow high in the mountains.

Closer to the coast there are cork oak forests; in the tropical region, evergreen equatorial plants are common, for example, mahogany, sandalwood, ebony, etc...

Nature, plants and animals of Africa

The vegetation of the equatorial forests is diverse, with about 1000 species of various types of trees growing here: ficus, ceiba, wine tree, oil palm, wine palm, banana palm, tree ferns, sandalwood, mahogany, rubber trees, Liberian coffee tree, etc. . Many species of animals, rodents, birds and insects live here, living directly on the trees. On the ground live: brush-eared pigs, leopards, African deer - a relative of the okapi giraffe, large apes - gorillas...

40% of Africa's territory is occupied by savannas, which are huge steppe areas covered with forbs, low, thorny bushes, milkweed, and isolated trees (tree-like acacias, baobabs).

Here there is the largest concentration of such large animals as: rhinoceros, giraffe, elephant, hippopotamus, zebra, buffalo, hyena, lion, leopard, cheetah, jackal, crocodile, hyena dog. The most numerous animals of the savannah are herbivores such as: hartebeest (antelope family), giraffe, impala or black-toed antelope, different kinds gazelles (Thomson's, Grant's), blue wildebeest, and in some places rare jumping antelopes - springboks - are also found.

The vegetation of deserts and semi-deserts is characterized by poverty and unpretentiousness; these are small thorny bushes and separately growing tufts of herbs. The oases are home to the unique Erg Chebbi date palm, as well as plants that are resistant to drought conditions and salt formation. In the Namib Desert, unique plants such as Welwitschia and Nara grow, the fruits of which are eaten by porcupines, elephants and other desert animals.

Animals here include various species of antelopes and gazelles, adapted to hot climates and capable of traveling vast distances in search of food, many species of rodents, snakes, and turtles. Lizards. Among the mammals: spotted hyena, common jackal, maned sheep, Cape hare, Ethiopian hedgehog, Dorcas gazelle, saber-horned antelope, Anubis baboon, wild Nubian ass, cheetah, jackal, fox, mouflon, there are resident and migratory birds.

Climatic conditions

Seasons, weather and climate of African countries

The central part of Africa, through which the equator line passes, is in an area of low pressure and receives sufficient moisture; the territories north and south of the equator are in the subequatorial climate zone, this is a zone of seasonal (monsoon) moisture and an arid desert climate. The far north and south are in the subtropical climate zone, the south receives precipitation brought by air masses from the Indian Ocean, the Kalahari Desert is located here, the north has minimal precipitation due to the formation of a high pressure area and the characteristics of the movement of trade winds, the largest desert in the world is the Sahara, where the amount precipitation is minimal, in some areas it does not fall at all...

Resources

Natural Resources of Africa

In terms of water resources, Africa is considered one of the poorest continents in the world. The average annual volume of water is only sufficient to satisfy primary needs, but this does not apply to all regions.

Land resources are represented by large areas with fertile lands. Only 20% of all possible lands are cultivated. The reason for this is the lack of adequate water volume, soil erosion, etc.

African forests are a source of timber, including valuable species. The countries in which they grow, export raw materials. Resources are being used unwisely and ecosystems are being destroyed little by little.

In the depths of Africa there are deposits of minerals. Among those sent for export: gold, diamonds, uranium, phosphorus, manganese ores. There are significant reserves of oil and natural gas.

Energy-intensive resources are widely available on the continent, but they are not used due to the lack of proper investment...

Among the developed industrial sectors of the countries of the African continent, the following can be noted:

the mining industry, which exports minerals and fuels;
oil refining industry, widespread mainly in South Africa and North Africa;
chemical industry specializing in the production of mineral fertilizers;
as well as the metallurgical and engineering industries.

The main agricultural products are cocoa beans, coffee, corn, rice and wheat. Oil palm is grown in tropical regions of Africa.

Fishing is poorly developed and accounts for only 1-2% of the total agricultural output. Livestock production indicators are also not high and the reason for this is the infection of livestock by tsetse flies...

Culture

Peoples of Africa: culture and traditions

There are approximately 8,000 peoples and ethnic groups living in 62 African countries, totaling approximately 1.1 billion people. Africa is considered the cradle and ancestral home of human civilization; it was here that the remains of ancient primates (hominids) were found, which, according to scientists, are considered the ancestors of people.

Most peoples in Africa can number several thousand people or several hundred living in one or two villages. 90% of the population are representatives of 120 nations, their number is more than 1 million people, 2/3 of them are peoples with a population of more than 5 million people, 1/3 are peoples with a population of more than 10 million people (this is 50% of the total population of Africa) - Arabs , Hausa, Fulbe, Yoruba, Igbo, Amhara, Oromo, Rwanda, Malagasy, Zulu...

There are two historical and ethnographic provinces: North African (the predominance of the Indo-European race) and Tropical African (the majority of the population is the Negroid race), it is divided into such areas as:

West Africa. Peoples speaking the Mande languages (Susu, Maninka, Mende, Vai), Chadian (Hausa), Nilo-Saharan (Songai, Kanuri, Tubu, Zaghawa, Mawa, etc.), Niger-Congo languages (Yoruba, Igbo, Bini, Nupe, Gbari, Igala and Idoma, Ibibio, Efik, Kambari, Birom and Jukun, etc.);
Equatorial Africa. Inhabited by Buanto-speaking peoples: Duala, Fang, Bubi (Fernandans), Mpongwe, Teke, Mboshi, Ngala, Komo, Mongo, Tetela, Cuba, Kongo, Ambundu, Ovimbundu, Chokwe, Luena, Tonga, Pygmies, etc.;
South Africa. Rebellious peoples and speakers of Khoisani languages: Bushmen and Hottentots;
East Africa. Bantu, Nilotes and Sudanese people groups;
Northeast Africa. Peoples speaking Ethio-Semitic (Amhara, Tigre, Tigra), Cushitic (Oromo, Somali, Sidamo, Agaw, Afar, Konso, etc.) and Omotian languages (Ometo, Gimirra, etc.);
Madagascar. Malagasy and Creoles.

In the North African province, the main peoples are considered to be Arabs and Berbers, belonging to the southern European minor race, mainly professing Sunni Islam. There is also an ethno-religious group of Copts, who are direct descendants of the Ancient Egyptians, they are Monophysite Christians.

The East African Plateau is located on both sides of the equator, between the Congo Basin in the west and the Indian Ocean in the east, Eastern Sudan, the Ethiopian Highlands, the Somali Peninsula in the north and the lower reaches of the Zambezi in the south and covers the area from 5th century. w. to 17° south w.

The plateau is a mobile, tectonically active part of the African Plate. The greatest rift system and the greatest heights of the continent are concentrated here. It is composed of Precambrian crystalline rocks, among which granites are widespread. The ancient foundation is covered in places by Paleozoic and Mesozoic, mainly continental sediments.

The plateau remained an elevated area for a long time. In the Cenozoic, enormous tectonic faults and rifts arose. They continue the grabens of the Red Sea and the Ethiopian Highlands and branch south of Lake Rudolf, forming the western, central and eastern fault systems. Rifts are expressed in relief as narrow depressions with steep stepped slopes; along their edges rise high mountain ranges (Rwenzori massif, volcanoes Kilimanjaro, Kenya, Elgon, etc.). Volcanic activity along the faults has not ended to this day. Areas not affected by faults have the appearance of a typical peneplain with island mountains. The plateau also contains extensive basins (Lake Victoria).

Western fault system runs along the western edge of the plateau and includes deep grabens occupied by the Albert Nile River valley, lakes Albert (Mobutu-Sese-Seko), Edward, Kivu, and Tanganyika. From Lake Tanganyika it stretches through the depression with the endorheic Lake Rukwa, the tectonic basin of Lake Nyasa, the Shire River valley and the lower reaches of the Zambezi. Fault tectonics is especially evident here. This is one of the most seismic zones of the continent and an arena of modern volcanism.

The grabens of lakes Albert and Edward are separated by the Rwenzori horst massif, the most high peak Africa (5119 m) after Kilimanjaro (5895 m) and Kenya (5199 m). The massif is composed of gneisses, crystalline schists and intrusions of basic rocks, has glacial forms of Quaternary and modern glaciation (kars, cirques, trough valleys, terminal moraines), giving an alpine character to the relief of its peaks.

Located between the grabens of Lakes Edward and Lake Kivu Virunga volcanic region(seven volcanoes). Here besides active volcanoes New volcanic cones are also formed. Ancient lavas cover the tectonic trough between the depressions of lakes Kivu and Tanganyika.

Adjacent to the northern segment of the western fault system from the east is Lake Plateau(Uganda plateau), located between lakes Edward, Albert, Victoria and the White Nile basin. The plateau has an undulating surface, composed mainly of crystalline rocks and reaches a height of 1000 to 1500 m. The central part of the plateau is occupied by a swampy plain with Lake Kyoga. The plateau ends with stepped slopes towards the East Sudanese Basin, and in the east it joins the volcanic plateau of Kenya.

Central fault system serves as a continuation of the Ethiopian graben, running in a meridional direction from Lake Rudolf in the north to Lake Nyasa in the south, where it meets the western fault system.

In the northern part of the central faults, within the volcanic plateau of Kenya, the volcanic relief is especially pronounced. Extinct volcanoes Kilimanjaro, Kenya, Elgon and a group of giant craters rise along tectonic cracks, the edges of which are covered with basalts and tuffs. Among the group of giant craters stands out the Ngorongoro volcano with a huge caldera.

Between the western and central fault systems, on the one hand, and lakes Victoria and Nyasa, on the other, there is Unyamwezi plateau. It is composed of granites and is very swampy. To the east are the Nyasa and Masai plateaus. These are peneplains on a granite base, broken by faults and crowned with rounded crystalline outlier peaks.

Eastern fault system is represented predominantly by one-sided faults. They limit with ledges from the west a narrow coastal lowland, composed mainly of permeable Tertiary sandstones and limestones.

The climate of the East African Plateau is subequatorial, hot, variable-humid, with a clearly defined climatic zone on high mountain ranges. Only in the vicinity of Lake Victoria, on the Ozerny Plateau, does it approach the equatorial one both in terms of the amount and regime of precipitation, and in the even course of temperatures, which, however, due to the high altitude of the area, are 3-5 ° C lower than the average monthly temperatures of the equatorial strip in the Congo Basin.

Within the plateau, trade winds and equatorial monsoons dominate. During the winter months of the Northern Hemisphere, the northeast trade wind, without changing its direction, is drawn into a pressure depression over the Kalahari. Passing over the ocean from Southeast Asia to Africa, it is moistened and produces a small amount of precipitation, mainly orographic. In the summer of the Northern Hemisphere, the south trade wind (southeast wind) intensifies; crossing the equator, it takes on the character of a southwest monsoon. The main wet period is also associated with them; most precipitation falls on the windward slopes of the mountains.

High temperatures observed only at low altitudes, especially on the Indian Ocean coast. In Dar es Salaam, for example, average temperature the warmest month (January) is +28 °C, the coldest month (August) is +23 °C. It becomes cooler with height, although the annual cycle remains uniform. In the mountains at an altitude of more than 2000 m, the temperature is below 0 ° C, snow falls above 3500 m, and on the highest massifs - Rwenzori, Kilimanjaro and Kenya - there are small glaciers.

The moisture content of different parts of the East African Plateau varies. High mountain ranges receive the greatest amount of precipitation (up to 2000-3000 mm or more). From 1000 mm to 1500 mm of precipitation falls in the north-west and south-west of the country, as well as on the Indian Ocean coast south of 4° S. sh., where the mountainous meridional coast delays moist winds from the Indian Ocean. In the rest of the plateau, 750-1000 mm of precipitation falls per year, decreasing in the extreme northeast and in closed depressions to 500 mm or less. Kenya is the driest region of the plateau, with a long rainless period of 7 to 9 months.

For territories located between 5° N. w. and 5° S. sh., is characterized by an equatorial precipitation regime, with two rainy seasons (March-May and November-December), separated by two periods of relative decrease. To the south they merge into one rainy season (with October-November to March-April), followed by a dry period.

The East African Plateau occupies a watershed position between the basins of the Atlantic, Indian Oceans and the Mediterranean Sea. In the north-west of the region, the Nile originates, the system of which includes lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Albert and Edward. Lakes Tanganyika and Kivu belong to the Congo river system; Lake Nyasa drains into the Zambezi. In the central part of the plateau are located closed lakes(Rudolph, Ruk-va, Baringo, etc.). In terms of size, depth, influence on flow and climate, the lakes of the plateau are comparable to the Great Lakes of North America.

The tectonic fragmentation of the plateau, the diversity of relief and climatic conditions determine the diversity and variety of landscapes. Inland areas are dominated by typical savannas with fairly large tracts of woodlands and shrubs that shed their leaves during the dry season. The vegetation consists of cereals, acacias, mimosas, baobabs, tamarisks, euphorbias, etc. Red-brown soils are developed under typical savannas and woodlands on the plains, black tropical soils are developed in poorly drained relief depressions, and young brown tropical soils are found on basic volcanic rocks.

In the arid northeastern regions (Kenya plateau, north of 2°-3° N latitude), desert savannas and thickets of thorny shrubs of xerophytic acacias, leafless for most of the year, are developed on red-brown soils, sometimes turning into semi-desert. Similar and more arid landscapes are characteristic of the deep depressions of the central fault system, where drainless lakes are half-filled with sand, covered with a crust of salts, and surrounded by salt marshes with halophytic vegetation.

The northern part of the coastal lowland off the coast of the Indian Ocean also has sparse, semi-desert vegetation. In the southern part of the lowlands, semi-deserts give way to savannas, red-brown soils give way to red ones; Mixed deciduous-evergreen forests appear along rivers and on the windward slopes of mountains. There are mangroves along the coast.

In abundantly moist areas, humid equatorial forests are common on red-yellow soils and mixed deciduous-evergreen forests are common on red soils. They are mostly cut down and replaced by secondary formations - wet tall grass savannas. Evergreen and mixed forests are found mainly in the west (Lacustrine Plateau), where they meet the hylaea of the Congo Basin, as well as on the windward moist slopes of the high mountain ranges.

In the highlands of the country, the altitudinal landscape zonation is well defined. On the slopes of Kilimanjaro and in other mountains up to an altitude of 2100-2800 m, evergreen equatorial forests and mountain gili with lianas and epiphytes grow. There is a lot of rainfall here. Trees are represented by coniferous and deciduous species. In the undergrowth, a continuous bowl is formed by tree ferns and heathers. Lots of lichens and mosses. Mountain forests at altitudes of 1100-2000 s have been greatly altered by humans and have given way to park landscapes, where grassy spaces alternate with groves. Above the mountain gils (up to 3100-3900 m) there are thickets of bamboo and tree-like juniper, giving way to mountain tall grass meadows with giant tree-like groundsels (senecio) and lobelias. Starting from an altitude of 4200-4500 m, sparse lichen vegetation grows on rocky placers and cliffs. The peaks of Kilimanjaro, Kenya, Rwenzori from 4800 m are covered eternal snows and glaciers.

The fauna of the plateau is rich and diverse. Monkeys, elephants, giraffes, rhinoceroses, buffaloes, zebras, antelopes (kudu, eland, etc.) find rich food in savannas, woodlands and forests. Predators include lions and leopards. Hippos, crocodiles, and birds nest in river and lake thickets and reservoirs. The avifauna is richly represented: guinea fowl, marabou, secretary bird, African ostrich, shoebill, etc. Drier places are inhabited by lizards and snakes. The plateau is home to world-famous national parks and reserves. The Kivu National Park (Zaire), which includes the Rwenzori Mountains, protects the landscapes and rich wildlife of forests, savannas, and volcanic areas, including mountain gorillas. The national parks of Kagera in Rwanda, Serengeti, Ngorongoro in Tanzania and others are world famous.

South Africa

South Africa occupies the high part of the continent south of the watershed plateaus between the Congo and Zambezi river basins. The relief is dominated by plateaus and plateaus. The country is distinguished by a wide variety of landscapes due to sharp contrasts in humidity and topography of individual areas. The main part is occupied by the South African Plateau, which is adjacent to the Cape Mountains to the south. special natural area forms the island of Madagascar.

South African plateau lies within the Precambrian African Platform, occupying the Kalahari and Karoo syneclises. The Precambrian basement in the Kalahari syneclise lies shallow and in some places comes to the surface, forming protrusions and uplifts; The sedimentary cover is represented by horizontally lying continental deposits of the Upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic, mainly sandstones and sands (Kalahari formation). The Karoo Sine Clise is a platform foredeep that arose in connection with the formation of the Cape mountain system; within its boundaries, the crystalline basement is deeply sunk and hidden under a thick layer of lagoonal sediments; Permian-Triassic age, mainly sandstones and shales (Karroo Formation); In some places these rocks are intruded by lavas. Deposits of the Karoo Formation make up the southern and southeastern plateaus.

In terms of surface structure, the South African Plateau has much in common with the Congo Basin, but is located much higher. The central part of the plateau is occupied by plains Kalahari basins, lying at an altitude of 900-1000 m; Here on the surface there are red and white sands, hilly into low dunes.

The Kalahari Basin is surrounded on all sides by marginal plateaus and hills with numerous island outliers and mountains. They gradually rise towards the outskirts to 1200-2500 m or more. The greatest width of the plateau is reached in the east and south of the region. To the east are the Matabele and Weld plateaus, and to the south the Upper Karoo plateau.

Matabele Plateau lies between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. The plateau is composed of crystalline rocks; its surface is slightly hilly, there are separate island mountains. The marginal parts of the plateau are strongly dissected by river erosion and stand out sharply above the neighboring plains.

South of the Limpopo River is located Veld plateau. It consists of a series of stepped plateaus (High, Middle, Shrub and Low Veldt) descending towards the Kalahari Basin and the Limpopo River valley. The plateau is composed of sandstones, shales and conglomerates of the Karoo formation, in some places intrusive and volcanic rocks.

Upper Karoo, located south of the Orange River, it closes the Kalahari Basin in the south, descending to it in several steps. The plateau is composed of horizontally lying sandstones and shales, penetrated by numerous intrusions, forming remnant hills, sometimes sharp peaks.

In the west of the plateau, the strip of marginal plateaus narrows. The plateaus are composed of crystalline rocks and continental sediments. They are crowned by island mountains and remnant massifs, reaching their greatest heights in the Comas Plateau, where dislocated shales and quartzites are exposed.

The marginal plateaus of the South African plateau in the west, east and south drop steeply to the coastal plains and depression Great Karoo by the Great Escarpment, the outer slopes of which are deeply dissected by river erosion. The Ledge reaches its greatest height in the east, in the Drakensberg Mountains. The southern part of the mountains - the Basuto Highlands, which has basaltic lavas - is the highest massif of the Kalahari ring frame. Its peak, Thabana Ntlenyana (3482 m), is the highest in South Africa.

Adjacent to the marginal plateaus in the east is a vast Mozambican lowland. It is composed of Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits and is broken up by tectonic cracks in the northern part. In the west of the plateau, the marginal plateaus break off to the coastal plain. Its section between the Kunene and Orange rivers is the Namib Desert. The desert stretches from north to south for more than 1,500 km, occupying a narrow strip of ancient crystalline peneplain, fragmented by faults.

The plateau lies in the subequatorial, tropical and subtropical climatic zones. However, tropical climate types predominate. In the summer of the Southern Hemisphere, a local pressure depression forms over the Kalahari. The north of the region (up to the middle reaches of the Zambezi) is irrigated by the summer equatorial monsoon. The entire eastern part is influenced by the southeast trade wind, bringing humid tropical air from the Indian Ocean, heated over the warm Mozambique Current. Heavy rainfall occurs on the Mozambican lowlands, the slopes of the Great Escarpment and the eastern marginal plateaus. To the west of the Great Escarpment and the marginal plateaus, marine tropical air quickly transforms into continental air and the amount of precipitation decreases. The west coast is under the influence of the South Atlantic Anticyclone, intensified by the powerful cold Benguela Current. Atlantic air warms up over the surface of the continent and produces almost no precipitation. On the western marginal plateaus there is a front between maritime Atlantic and continental tropical air; here the amount of precipitation increases slightly. In the winter of the Southern Hemisphere, a local anticyclone forms over the plateau, connecting with the South Atlantic and South Indian baric maxima. Downward air currents cause the dry season; there is no precipitation.

The South African plateau is an area of relatively high temperatures, with significant daily and annual fluctuations. But on the plateau, temperatures are moderated by significant altitude. Over most of the plateau, summer temperatures are + 20-^-+ 25 °C, not rising above +40 °C; winter temperatures are +10 - + 16°C. The Upper Karoo Plateau experiences frosts in winter, while the Basotho Highlands experience snowfall.

The plateau is an area of predominantly scanty precipitation, distributed very unevenly across its territory. Their number decreases when moving from the east and north to the west and south. In the north of the region, up to 1500 mm of moisture falls per year; here the rainy season, brought by the equatorial monsoons, lasts up to 7 months. A lot of precipitation falls on the east coast, where the barrier role of the Great Escarpment is especially pronounced. Precipitation is brought here by the southeastern summer trade wind (more than 1000 mm per year, and on the slopes of the Basuto Highlands - over 2000 mm). The most frequent and heaviest rainfall occurs from November to April. On the eastern marginal plateaus, rainfall decreases on the Veld plateau (750-500) and Matabele (750-1000 mm). The summer maximum precipitation remains in the interior regions, but the annual amounts decrease. On the central Kalahari plains, the rainy season is reduced to 5-6 months, and the annual precipitation does not exceed 500 mm. To the southwest, precipitation decreases to 125 mm per year. The driest part of the area is the coastal Namib Desert (less than 100 mm of precipitation per year). Little precipitation will fall on the western marginal plateaus (up to 300 mm per year).

The river network on the plateau is poorly developed. Most of the channels of the Kalahari, western and southern marginal plateaus do not have permanent watercourses. The largest river is the Zambezi. The region's large rivers, the Orange and Limpopo, collect their waters from the Matabele Plateau and High Veldt. Okovango River - main water system internal drainage of the Kalahari Basin. During the rainy season, the Okovango Basin sometimes overflows with water, the excess flowing from Okovango to the Zambezi and the Makarikari Salt Flat.

The large size of the South African plateau, differences in relief and climate create a variety of landscapes.

South Africa represents almost all of the continent's landscapes.

Along with zonal differences, sectoral differences also appear. The region has well-defined eastern humid oceanic, mid-continental and western relatively cool desert oceanic sectors.

In the eastern sector, where there is a lot of precipitation, zones of seasonally wet forests alternate from north to south: subequatorial (up to 20° S), tropical (20-30° S) and subtropical monsoon. On the slopes of the Drakensberg Mountains, the altitudinal zone of the forest-meadow type is well defined. Seasonally wet forests occupy the windward slopes up to an altitude of 800-1000 m. Above that, shrubs and mountain-valley, predominantly coniferous forests, meadows, and rocky areas appear; similar vegetation is characteristic of the Basuto Highlands (bush thickets, isolated trees, meadows and rocky areas).

In the middle continental sector (Kalahari Basin and marginal plateaus) natural zones of savannas, woodlands and shrubs of the subequatorial and tropical zones, tropical and subtropical semi-deserts, and subtropical mountain steppes are developed. However, semi-desert landscapes dominate. Rare vegetation consists of xerophytic grasses, shrubs and individual acacias, euphorbias, and aloe. The Kalahari are characterized by wild watermelons, the stems of which cover large areas.

In the western oceanic sector is the tropical Namib Desert. In its southern part, along the valleys of dry riverbeds and in places of shallow groundwater, quite dense vegetation of succulent shrubs and subshrubs, low-growing acacias and tough grasses is developed. The most interesting plant in the northern part of the desert is the ancient relict of Welwitschia.

The South African plateau, with its wide variety of landscapes, has a rich and varied fauna. But the number of wild animals has now significantly decreased, and many of their species are disappearing. The number of herbivorous animals - antelopes, zebras, giraffes - has especially decreased; predators have also been severely exterminated. Lions, leopards, and wild cats have almost completely disappeared; hyenas and jackals are more common. The largest reserve in the region is national park Kruger in South Africa. Almost all African animals are collected here.

Cape Mountains located in the extreme southwest and south of the mainland, between the mouth of the Olifants River in the west and the city of Port Elizabeth in the east. They stretch along the coast for 800 km, their average height 1500 m. They are separated from the Great Escarpment of the South African Plateau by the Great Karoo depression.

Folding processes here occurred from the second half of the Carboniferous to the second half of the Triassic, to which their main phases belong. Therefore, the Cape Mountains are somewhat younger in age than typical Hercynian structures. They were subsequently destroyed and smoothed, and then rejuvenated by later uplifts.

The Cape Mountains consist of several anticlinal ridges that are blocky in nature. The ridges are separated by wide longitudinal synclinal valleys and narrow transverse gorges.

The main part of the Cape Mountains is the southern system of latitudinal ranges. Here are the highest (up to 2324 m) and longest mountains of Zwartberg (Small and Large) and Langeberg, between which lies the intermountain Little Karoo plateau. To the east, the ridges decline and end in rocky headlands into the sea. In the extreme south they break up into small isolated ridges and massifs rising among the coastal plain. Another system of ridges extends along the Atlantic Ocean in a north-northwest direction. In the southwest and south, the mountains approach the coast at an angle, indented by convenient bays.

\ The climate of the Cape Mountains is subtropical. In the southwest it is of the Mediterranean type, with rainy, warm winters and dry, hot summers. Temperatures are moderated by altitude and sea. In Cape Town, the average temperature in January is + 21 ° C, in July + 12 ° C. The rains begin in April, are heavy from June to September, and then stop as humid westerly winds give way to winds from subtropical anticyclones. In winter, snow falls on the mountain tops. In the western part of the mountains, on their windward slopes, the greatest amount of precipitation falls (up to 1800 mm per year). To the east their number decreases to 800 mm. East of 22°E. In the precipitation regime, the typical features of the Mediterranean climate disappear, and the summer maximum begins to predominate due to the penetration of humid oceanic monsoons onto the continent. On the coastal plain there is little precipitation (in Cape Town - 650 mm per year). The climate of the inner parts of the mountains is subtropical continental.

The Cape Mountains are covered mainly by Mediterranean type vegetation with a predominance of evergreen hard-leaved shrubs and herbaceous perennials. The landscapes here have much in common with the Atlas Mountains. They are also characterized by brown (typical and leached) and mountain-forest brown soils. However, the floristic composition of the vegetation is different, specific to the Cape flora. Various heathers, proteas, pelargoniums, mesembryanthemums, aloe, cactus-like euphorbias, fatworts, etc. are very characteristic. Cape nightshade with yellow poisonous fruits, silver tree with silver fluffy leaves, Cape water lily with red flowers, wild watermelon, etc. are also interesting. flora there are few trees. The predominant species are evergreen shrubs and perennial grasses.

Thickets of evergreen hard-leaved shrubs form the fynbos formation (an analogue of the Mediterranean maquis), which arose on the site of cleared forests that previously covered the mountain slopes. Fynbos includes members of the Proteaceae (including silverwood), Ericaceae, Fabaceae, Campanaceae and Rutaceae families.

Forests have survived only on inaccessible, well-watered mountain slopes. In the west, in deep and inaccessible valleys, you can find a few groves of southern conifers (podocarpus, etc.), in the east, on the slopes of the mountains, there are dense monsoon mixed forests, consisting of coniferous and evergreen deciduous trees (laurel olive, cape beech, etc. .) trees. Palm groves grow in the coastal lowlands.

Vast areas in the Cape Mountains are covered with grasses with a predominance of bulbous, tuberous and rhizomatous forms from the family Amaryllis, Iris, Orchids and Lamiaceae. Characteristic are immortelle, cineraria and other Compositae. On especially dry and hot leeward slopes and in depressions, semi-desert landscapes with succulent shrubs and subshrubs are developed. In the Little Karoo depression, thickets of acacias and aloe are common along the rivers; in other parts, the vegetation is represented by sparse shrubs.

Madagascar - one of the largest islands on Earth (590 thousand km 2). In size it is second only to Greenland, New Guinea and Kalimantan.

Madagascar is an ancient crystalline, obliquely set block of the African Platform, separated from the mainland in the Mesozoic. The relief of the island is asymmetrical. Its entire eastern part is occupied by a highly elevated Central plateau. It is composed mainly of crystalline (granites, diabases) and metamorphic (mica stanzas, gneisses and quartzites) rocks, intruded and covered in places by volcanic formations. The surface of the plateau is an ancient peneplain, gently inclined from east to west and dissected by faults and rivers into isolated plateaus, remnant hills and massifs, between which there are depressions and wide valleys with a flat bottom, partially occupied by lakes and swamps. The predominant heights of the Central Plateau are 800-1200 m, near the eastern edge - up to 1500 m. The highest heights are in the middle part (Ankaratra massif, 2644 m) and in the north (Tsaratanana volcanic massif, 2880 m, the highest point of the island).

In the east, the Central Plateau descends by two fault ledges, deeply dissected by rivers to a narrow (10-20 km) coastal lowland composed of Quaternary sediments. From the west it is adjacent to relatively low plateaus (less than 800 m in height) and a wide strip of hilly lowland, on the ancient foundation of which Cretaceous and Cenozoic marine sediments lie.

Madagascar's climate is mainly tropical and hot. In the north, the average temperature of the coldest month (July) is +20 °C, the warmest (January) is +27 °C. In the south, the average July temperature drops to + 13°C, the average January temperature drops to + 33°C. The climate on the plateau is moderate, temperatures decrease with altitude. In Antananarivo, at an altitude of 1400 m, the average January temperature is below + 20 °C, the average July temperature is +12 - + 13 °C. The amount of precipitation varies in different areas of the island. The bulk of precipitation is brought by the southeast trade wind from the Indian Ocean. Therefore on east coast(lowland and plateau slopes) rainfall occurs almost evenly throughout the year and the amount of precipitation reaches 3000 mm per year. On the eastern plateaus the amount of precipitation decreases, but exceeds 1500 mm. In the west of the island there are different rainy and dry periods. The amount of precipitation decreases from 1000 to 500 mm per year. In the extreme southwest, inaccessible to moist air currents, less than 400 mm of moisture falls per year.

Much of Madagascar is covered in a dense network high-water rivers. Large rivers are located in the western part. They begin on the Central Plateau and flow into the Mozambique Channel. Rivers have rapids where they cross plateau ledges. The rivers are high in summer (November-April) and low in winter. Many of them dry out in winter.

The flora and fauna of Madagascar is poorer than on the mainland and is characterized by high endemism. This is the result of the island's long isolation. Over 6,700 species of endemic angiosperms are known here. There are almost no ungulates, apex predators or true monkeys on the island.

The vegetation cover of the island has undergone great changes. Natural vegetation on 4/5 of Madagascar's area has been reduced by humans. Previously, the island was covered with moist evergreen forests in the east and dry deciduous forests and savannas in the west. Now no more than 13% of the island's surface is occupied by forests.

Wet evergreen forests are now preserved only in small areas in the eastern part of the island (valuable iron, black, rosewood trees, many gum trees, rubber trees, and traveler's trees).

The western part of the island is dominated by low-grass savannas with baobabs, palms and tamarinds. Tropical light forests are found only in small areas(most often in the form of gallery forests along river banks) and consist of species with foliage falling in dry times. The southwestern edge of Madagascar is occupied by semi-desert landscapes. Thorny bushes and tough grasses grow here. Aloe, candelabra-shaped euphorbia, and various bulbous plants are especially numerous.

The fauna of the island is very unique. It has been preserved since the separation of Madagascar from the mainland. Lemurs are widespread here (35 species). In other parts globe they are absent or few (represented by one or two species). On the island there are representatives of primitive predators - civets; There are ferret cats, wild boars, endemic insectivores - tenrecs, and some species of bats. The avifauna is rich, and it includes many endemic species, genera and even families (almost half of all birds are endemic). There are a variety of reptiles, including chameleons, geckos, turtles, and two types of crocodiles. Insects are numerous and varied.

Western fault system runs along the western edge of the plateau and includes deep grabens,

occupied by the Albert Nile River valley, lakes Albert (Mobutu-Sese-Seko), Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika. From Lake Tanganyika it stretches through the depression with the endorheic Lake Rukwa, the tectonic basin of Lake Nyasa, the Shire River valley and the lower reaches of the Zambezi. Fault tectonics is especially evident here. This is one of the most seismic zones of the continent and an arena of modern volcanism.

The grabens of Lakes Albert and Lake Edward are separated by the Rwenzori horst massif, the highest peak in Africa (5119 m) after Kilimanjaro (5895 m) and Kenya (5199 m). The massif is composed of gneisses, crystalline schists and intrusions of basic rocks, has glacial forms of Quaternary and modern glaciation (kars, cirques, trough valleys, terminal moraines), giving an alpine character to the relief of its peaks.

Located between the grabens of Lakes Edward and Lake Kivu Virunga volcanic region(seven volcanoes). Here, in addition to active volcanoes, new volcanic cones are also formed. Ancient lavas cover the tectonic trough between the depressions of lakes Kivu and Tanganyika.

Underwater volcanic eruptions occur at the bottom of lakes Kivu and Nyasa

186 Africa. Regional overview

plain with Lake Kyoga. The plateau ends with stepped slopes towards the East Sudanese Basin, and in the east it joins the volcanic plateau of Kenya.

In the northern part of the central faults, within the volcanic plateau of Kenya, the volcanic relief is especially pronounced. The extinct volcanoes Kilimanjaro, Kenya, Elgon and a group of giant craters rise along tectonic cracks, the edges of which are covered with basalts and tuffs. Among the group of giant craters stands out the Ngorongoro volcano with a huge caldera.

rial both in terms of the amount and regime of precipitation, and in the even course of temperatures, which, however, due to the high altitude of the area, are 3-5 ° C lower than the average monthly temperatures of the equatorial strip in the Congo Basin.

High temperatures are observed only at low altitudes, especially along the Indian Ocean coast. In Dar es Salaam, for example, the average temperature of the warmest month (January) is +28 °C, the coldest month (August) is +23 °C. It becomes cooler with height, although the annual cycle remains uniform. In the mountains at an altitude of more than 2000 m, the temperature is below 0 ° C, snow falls above 3500 m, and on the highest massifs - Rwenzori, Kilimanjaro and Kenya - there are small glaciers.

East African plateau 187

ocean south of 4° S. sh., where the mountainous meridional coast delays moist winds from the Indian Ocean. In the rest of the plateau, 750-1000 mm of precipitation falls per year, decreasing in the extreme northeast and in closed depressions to 500 mm or less. Kenya is the driest region of the plateau, with a long rainless period of 7 to 9 months.

For territories located between 5° N. w. and 5° S. sh., is characterized by an equatorial precipitation regime, with two rainy seasons (March-May and November-December), separated by two periods of relative decrease. To the south they merge into one rainy season (from October-November to March-April), followed by a dry period.

The East African Plateau occupies a watershed - a position between the basins of the Atlantic, Indian Oceans and the Mediterranean Sea. In the north-west of the region, the Nile originates, the system of which includes lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Albert and Edward. Lakes Tanganyika and Kivu belong to the Congo river system; Lake Nyasa drains into the Zambezi. In the central part of the plateau there are endorheic lakes (Rudolph, Ruk-va, Baringo, etc.). In terms of size, depth, influence on flow and climate, the lakes of the plateau are comparable to the Great Lakes of North America.

risks, milkweed, etc. Red-brown soils are developed under typical savannas and open forests on the plains, black tropical soils are developed in poorly drained relief depressions, and young brown tropical soils are found on basic volcanic rocks.

In heavily moist areas
widespread humid equatorial
forests on red-yellow soils and
mixed deciduous-evergreen-

new ones - on red soils. They are mostly cut down and replaced by secondary formations - wet tall grass savannas. Evergreen and mixed forests are found mainly in the west (Lacustrine Plateau), where they meet the hylaea of the Congo Basin, as well as on the windward moist slopes of the high mountain ranges.

188 Africa. Regional overview