Located at the latitude of southern France and northern Italy.

Crimean rivers

The main river is Salgir. Her 232 -x kilometer-long channel begins in the area of ​​​​the Angarsk Pass and is lost off the coast of the Azov Sea. In total, approx. 150 rec. The most fertile and picturesque valleys are located between Bakhchisarai and Sevastopol. They are formed by the Alma, Kacha, Belbek, and Chernaya rivers.

Being essentially an island, it has become a kind of reserve for some endemic (not found anywhere except in this area) representatives of flora and fauna. Vegetable and animal world.

Rare plants and animals, unique landscapes that the peninsula is so rich in, are under conservation protection. Their total area is about 700 square kilometers, that's more 2,5% from the territory, one of the highest indicators of reserve saturation for the CIS. Many of the protected areas are visited by tourists; here you are required to be especially careful about nature.

Crimea - the golden mean of the earth

This land is beautiful, washed by one of the most festive seas on the globe.
K. Paustovsky.

Each of us has the inalienable right to love our native land and claim that there is no land more beautiful, more fertile, more unique. Only a fool would argue, but a wise person would agree, although he would add: “Of course, you are right, dear friend, but my homeland is also beautiful...”

Crimeans behave only this way and not differently: after all, millions of people from all over the world come to Crimea every year. Of course, Crimeans agree that there are still blessed corners of the earth somewhere. They don’t ask: “Why did you come to us, and not we to you?” Without a doubt, Crimeans are wise people, they say in such cases: “Of course, you are right, dear friend, but my Crimea is also beautiful, let me tell you about it.”

Let's open the map and get our bearings. The southernmost point of Crimea (44° 23") is Cape Sarych, near the village of Foros, located between Sevastopol and Alupka. The northernmost (46° 15") is located on the Perekop Isthmus, near the village of Perekop. This means that Crimea is located at latitude 45, midway between the North Pole and the equator. Perhaps someone has some other thoughts on this matter, but in the middle means in the middle, and not somewhere else. At latitude 45, by the way, is the geographical center of France, such European cities, like Budapest, Bucharest, Milan, Bern, the Canadian city of Montreal, the American cities of Minneapolis and Portland. Their latitude is fine, but their longitude...

The westernmost point of Crimea (32°29") is Cape Priboyny (Kapa-Mryn) on the Tarkhankut Peninsula, the easternmost (36°39") is Cape Fonar on the Kerch Peninsula. So, Crimea is located near 30° east longitude, that is, in the middle between the Greenwich meridian and the Urals, separating Europe and Asia. Please open the world map, don’t be lazy. At what length is it bent in half, where is its middle? Of course, along the line of 30" east longitude. St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkov, Ankara, Cairo, Lake Victoria, the highest point in Africa - the Kilimanjaro volcano, the North and South Poles are located at approximately this longitude. They were lucky with longitude, but here they are lucky the latitude fell only to Crimea.

If you look at the sky, it will point to Crimea. The Milky Way is called Chumatskiy Shlyakh in Ukrainian. The nebula pointing to the south seemed to have been created for the correct orientation of our ancestors, the Chumaks, who went to the Crimea for salt.

Before closing the map, let's take another look at the peninsula depicted on it. What is Crimea like? Of course - in the heart. A heart shocked by the Creator's Plan. A heart delighted with the incomprehensible wisdom and endless beauty of Nature. Crimea also looks like arms outstretched for hugs and like a cross sent down to people to comprehend the great unity of Faith, Love and Hope. A cross connecting North and South, West and East. But most of all, Crimea is like a flower dropped by the Creator on Earth.

Of course, you are right, dear friend, your homeland is beautiful, but so is my Crimea! Let me tell you about it in a little more detail.

The area of ​​the Crimean Peninsula exceeds 26 thousand km2, the maximum distance from north to south is 205 km, from west to east - 325 km. Yes, it is smaller than Switzerland, the Netherlands or Belgium, but Crimea is almost 56 times larger than Andorra, 82 times larger than Malta and 165 (!) times larger than such a venerable European principality as Liechtenstein. We will not compare Crimea with such small states as San Marino.

In many countries of the world there is not a single sea, but in Crimea there are two of them: the Black Sea and the Azov Sea. The Black Sea forms three large bays off the coast of the peninsula: Karkinitsky, Kalamitsky and Feodosiya; There are three large bays near the Sea of ​​Azov: Kazantipsky, Arabatsky and Sivashsky.

Crimea in the north is connected to the mainland by a narrow eight-kilometer strip of land called the Perekop Isthmus. The Kerch Strait, whose width is 4-5 km, separates Crimean peninsula from Tamansky - the western tip of the Krasnodar region of Russia. The total length of the peninsula's borders exceeds 2,500 km; the shores are slightly indented, except for a very winding coastline parts of the peninsula near Sevastopol. In the coastal strip of the Crimean plain there are 50 estuary lakes with a total area of ​​53 thousand km2. Of course, this is not as much as, say, in Finland or Norway, but the Crimean lakes are valuable because they are filled with brine, a concentrated salt solution that has absorbed the power of the sea, sun and earth.

At the beginning of the 20th century. About 40% of table salt was mined in Crimea Russian Empire. It is well known that D.I. Mendeleev said that using oil as fuel is tantamount to burning banknotes. To paraphrase the words of the great chemist, we can say that using Crimean salt as table salt is the same as salting soup with gold. The ecologically chaste chemical industry of the peninsula at the Saki and Krasnoperekopsk chemical plants produces various compounds of sodium, calcium, magnesium, and bromine from lake and Sivash salt. However, the medicinal use of the Crimean estuaries is much better known, but this will be a separate discussion.

Once upon a time, palaces were erected by monarchs and their entourage on the southern coast of Crimea. The ruler of the next historical period invited Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Winston Churchill to divide the post-war world here. Why did the highly respected guests of Crimea choose it over all other places on Earth? Yes, because they were attracted by the unique Crimean climate, whose undeniable advantages are caused by several reasons.

The first is the mentioned equidistance from the equator and the North Pole, which determines the long length of the summer day, and not the measly 12 hours in the tropics, and a sufficient amount of beneficial warmth - namely heat, and not equatorial heat or polar cold.

The second is the union of sea and mountains. On hot sunny days of summer, Crimea is refreshed by a breeze, a cool breeze from the sea. In the cool evening hours it is replaced by warm air from the mountains.

The third is the unique position of the peninsula relative to the general circulation of the atmosphere, the predominance of westerly winds and stable anticyclones with clear weather and, as a result, a record number of sunny days, the absence of sweltering heat carried by air currents from Africa, and, naturally, minimal exposure to cold air masses from north, from which mountains serve as an additional barrier.

The Crimean mountains are small, their maximum height (Mount Roman-Kosh) reaches 1545 m, much less than Everest, but this height is quite enough to create a subtropical paradise on the South Coast, without simultaneously erecting an insurmountable barrier between the warm sea and the northern, steppe part of the peninsula .

Perhaps in some other place on Earth the expression “golden mountains” is an exaggeration, a metaphor, but not in Crimea. Crimean marls serve as raw materials for the production of cement, facing slabs are made from marble-like limestones, and beautiful white buildings are built from blocks of the famous Inkerman stone from the time of Chersonesos to the present day. Due to their high strength, rich color shades and good polishing properties, diabases of igneous origin are used for the manufacture of monuments and facing slabs. In Karadag and other places one can find such minerals (gems) as agate, jet, onyx, opal, carnelian, and brocade jasper.

Why are there gems? Even clay in Crimea is precious. Crimean bentonite formed from volcanic ash, popularly called keel, soap earth or mountain soap, has very unusual properties. Previously it was used for wine clarification, soap making, laundry and bleaching, but today it is used in high technology.

The flat plateaus of the Crimean Mountains combine the properties of plains and mountains, representing another “golden mean” of Crimea. Unprotected from the merciless sun, the yaylas seem to the uninitiated to be a symbol of dehydration, but this is not at all the case: underlain by porous limestones, they absorb precipitation like a sponge in order to, together with the shady forests, drop by drop accumulate water that feeds the Crimean rivers.

Crimea has everything, but in order not to jinx it, its residents like to grumble just in case. And since it is quite difficult to find a reason for grumbling in this corner of paradise, they are usually annoyed by the lack of water. Indeed, there are only 1657 rivers on the peninsula and only 150 of them are less than 10 km long. The total length of the watercourses is 5966 km, more than the length of the Amur from the mouth to the sources of the Argun, but slightly less than the Nile.

However, we must honestly say that natural water resources the peninsulas were clearly insufficient in its steppe part. We've heard a lot of bad things about global reclamation projects, and that's probably true. Probably, the turn of the northern rivers to the south threatened the Earth environmental disaster, but the turn of the southern river to the south, i.e. the creation of the North Crimean Canal, solved many of the problems of the peninsula.

Crimean drinking water is generally slightly mineralized, which is beneficial for the human body, but if you are used to water enriched with wastewater industrial giants, do not get upset prematurely. After all, Crimea has everything, even black water. The hydrogen sulfide-saturated water of the Adzhi-Su mineral spring in the village of Kuibyshevo, Bakhchisarai region, forms a black sediment of biologically active gums and bitumens, which is healing in hot medicinal baths. In total, more than a hundred sources of healing mineral waters, replete with many microelements - from fluorine to radium, have been explored in Crimea.

Geographical position, climate, steppe areas on mountain tops, clear and black waters - everywhere we talk about the combination of opposite principles. If you mix all the colors into one, you will get a dirty gray color. To avoid misunderstandings, we will immediately make an official clarification: Crimea is the Golden Mean, not mediocrity. The colors of his palette sparkle without mixing, and at the same time create a unique flavor.

Combining steppe and subtropics, Crimea not only does not mix them, but complements them with a zone of forests and forest-steppe. Yayla is not half-steppe and half-mountain, but a unique a natural phenomenon, which is difficult to find analogues. Combining different principles, Crimea preserves their originality and complements them with new, unique qualities. Natural sciences unanimously prove the island origin of Crimea - we will talk about this more than once and present scientific arguments - therefore, on the peninsula, in addition to the amazing combination of steppe and Mediterranean nature, there is a great variety of endemic plant and animal species found only on the peninsula.

Among the natural massifs of Crimea, man-made landscapes are scattered in a bizarre mosaic: intertwining architectural styles of many centuries and peoples of the city, town and village, majestic parks, well-groomed fields, lush gardens, fragrant plantations of roses and lavender, unique vineyards. Since 1963, a period of intensive irrigated agriculture began in Crimea. Almost 40 types of vegetable crops are grown in open and closed ground. The quality of Crimean products is famous far beyond the borders of the autonomous republic.

Essential oil enterprises in the cities of Simferopol, Bakhchisaray, Alushta, Sudak and the urban village of Nizhnegorsk produce rose, lavender and sage oils. One of the leading industries in Crimea is food. The largest fishing port on the Black Sea with refrigerators, canning and ship repair plants was built in Sevastopol. However, the high level of development of the peninsula's food industry is due not only to the highly commercial agriculture of the peninsula and the rich resources of the seas. Its development is facilitated by a relatively high level of food consumption, especially in summer time. Thus, the issue of warmly treating guests is raised on a grand scale in Crimea.

Crimea is the unity of sea, steppe and mountains. It is worth removing a layer of soil from the surface of the earth in the steppe Crimea, and on the surface you will find a wonderful, easy-to-process building material - limestone-shell rock. Buildings with a layer of shell rock in their walls, like the sea, keep warm in winter and cool in summer.

One should not think, however, that only shell rock is hidden under the fertile Crimean soil. The iron ores of the Kerch basin lie so shallow that they are mined using opencast mining. These ores are unique in their high manganese content, so when smelting alloy steels, this element is added in minimal quantities or not at all.

Since the mid-60s. Industrial development of natural gas fields is underway on the Tarkhankut Peninsula, in Northern Crimea and on the Arabat Spit. An extensive system of gas pipelines made it possible to gasify most populated areas, convert thermal power plants to environmentally friendly fuel and enter the country’s unified gas pipeline system.

The top of the industrial pyramid of the Crimean Autonomous Republic is the industry high technology: electronics, automotive industry, defense industry, construction of supertankers.

The comprehensive development of the Crimean industry is based on an extensive network of communications. There are two railway lines in Crimea. Maritime transport carries out small coastal connections in the Azov-Black Sea basin and distant international flights. However, the main transport of the autonomous republic is automobile. It accounts for about 90% of domestic freight and passenger traffic. In the early 60s. The mountain trolleybus route Simferopol - Yalta came into operation, making it possible to connect the capital of the republic with the Southern Bank using convenient and inexpensive transport.

Environmental safety of the Crimean industry has long traditions. Back in 1931, the first in the USSR, the most powerful at that time in Europe power plant powered by wind, was built in Balaklava. The generator blades had a diameter of 30 meters. The unique power plant was destroyed during the war. In 1986, a solar power plant with a capacity of 5 MW was built in Crimea. The total area of ​​mirrors is 40 thousand m2. Several environmentally friendly projects have been implemented on the peninsula, using tidal energy to generate electricity, solar and geothermal energy to supply heat to residential buildings, resorts and hotels.

The intercity trolleybus service very clearly demonstrates the level of environmental requirements for the development of the Crimean industry.

We could talk for a very long time about Crimean science, about the great scientists who worked here, but instead of a huge list of discoveries, we will limit ourselves to a single brief remark: several sciences were created in Crimea, including virology, marine physics, helioseismology.

People of many nationalities inhabit Crimea, all of them are representatives of an endemic species called “Crimeans”. Crimeans are hardworking, smart, hospitable and prone to fun. Men are wise, strong, women are kind and incredibly beautiful. In a word, they are the same as the rest of the people on Earth, and only one thing distinguishes them from the rest of the planet’s inhabitants: they are more patient with the geographical boasting of visitors. Crimeans listen carefully to their guests, treat them to amazing Crimean wines, feed them dishes made from organic Crimean products, take them to caves, nature reserves, beaches, dolphinariums, tasting rooms, arrange sea excursions... Next - the entire contents of the book.

The population of Crimea increases many times in summer and early autumn. When millions of guests go home, it turns out that there are about 2.5 million true Crimeans. According to 1998 data, 363.8 thousand people lived in the capital of Crimea, Simferopol, 167.4 thousand in Kerch, 371.4 thousand in Sevastopol, 113.5 thousand in Evpatoria. Considering the small number of the endemic species described above, we propose to include it in the Red Book and, if there is no way to stop all talk about the unsurpassed (?!) charm of other lands, then at least give the Crimeans a word in defense of their homeland.

Alas, this is not always possible, because in holiday season Crimeans are a minority on the peninsula. But they came up with a way out and told about themselves and their region in the coat of arms.

Coat of arms of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea

The columns are a symbol of the ancient Crimean civilization, a memory of Naples, Panticapaeum, Tmutarakan, Chersonese, Theodoro, and other cities and kingdoms that once existed on the territory of Crimea. The griffin is a symbol of the guardian and defender of Crimea. The blue pearl in his paw symbolizes the uniqueness of Crimea, the unity of all its peoples, religions and cultures. The Varangian shield is a symbol of the intersection of trade routes, and its red color is a symbol of courage and bravery of the peoples of Crimea. Rising Sun at the top is a symbol of rebirth, prosperity, warmth and light.

In general, everything that is reflected in the words of the wise writer is embodied: “Everyone is rewarded according to his faith...”

© Chapters from the book "All about Crimea. With love." Publishing house "World of Information", 2002 (text - G. Dubovis, responsible for the issue A. Ganzha, R. Tsyupko, editor T. Esadze)

Geographical location of Crimea

The Crimean Peninsula has a relatively small territory: for comparison, we can say that it is 20 times smaller in area than the Iberian and Balkan Peninsulas, and 15 times smaller than Kamchatka and Asia Minor. Crimea is located at 44 and 46 degrees N. w., i.e. this is a southern territory, it corresponds to the south of France, the Ciscaucasia or the Great American Lakes in North America.

Crimea is an integral part of the huge continent of Eurasia, and it is located almost equally distant from both the North Pole and the equator, since a latitude of 45 degrees crosses the peninsula near the city of Dzhankoy. Approximately here is the border between the two climatic zones: temperate zone and subtropics, therefore in Crimea, on this small peninsula, you can observe atmospheric and natural processes and phenomena characteristic of both zones.

The Crimean Peninsula occupies a relatively small territory - its area is 20 times smaller than the Iberian and Balkan Peninsulas, and 15 times smaller than Kamchatka and Asia Minor. But Crimea became famous, significant and attractive largely due to the peculiarities of its nature, and above all its unique geographical location.

Perekop Isthmus - extreme northern point Crimean peninsula. It is distant from Cape Sarych (extreme southern point) at 207 km. From the extreme western point - Cape Kara-Mrun, located on the Tarkhankut Peninsula, to Cape Lantern on the eastern Kerch Peninsula - 324 km. And three capes, like the three legendary biblical whales lying in the Black and Azov Seas, seem to “keep” the peninsula afloat.

The shape of Crimea resembles a slightly distorted rhombus, but if you turn on your imagination, you can see in the outlines of the peninsula a bird diving into the waters of the Black Sea. But the beauty of the peninsula, combined with its outlines, inspired the famous Chilean poet Pablo Neruda to call Crimea “the most magnificent medal on the chest of the Earth.”

The figurative expression “Island of Crimea” is also close to the truth. The thing is that it is connected to the land only by the Perekop Isthmus, the width of which narrows in places to only 7 km. And all transport routes in the Chongar Strait area are laid through the Sivash Bay on an embankment dam and bridge.

Sometimes, in old guidebooks, the Perekop Isthmus was compared with the Isthmus of Panama in its geographical significance, but instead of deep ocean waters, it is surrounded here by shallow waters and viscous gray mud of the Rotten Sea (Sivash). In distant revolutionary times, the isthmus was dug into a deep, up to 10 m, ditch, next to which an 8-meter-high earthen rampart, up to 11 km long, was built.

The almost “island” geographical position of Crimea, surrounded by two seas - the Black and Azov seas, increases the isolation of the peninsula, and is noticeably reflected in the features of its landscapes, flora and fauna. That is why there are not only many rare species, but also endemic species found on Earth only in Crimea.

Crimea is also characterized by a circular (circum-island) distribution of climatic phenomena, which is manifested in less precipitation, longer duration of sunshine, and the presence of breezes on the coast, which distinguishes them from the central parts of the peninsula. A special place of the peninsula is the Crimean Mountains, forming another internal “island” with its own special and unique features and characteristics.

The Crimean Peninsula, located in the extreme east of the vast Mediterranean, is a connecting “bridge” connecting the East European Plain, Asia Minor and the Caucasus. Therefore, in Crimea there is a change in the areas of geographical distribution of a number of plant and animal species, which gives originality to the flora and fauna of the peninsula.

The landscapes of the peninsula are also varied, where vast flat plains alternate with dissected hills, and in the south they give way to mountain ranges that drop steeply to the Black Sea. Due to the sublatitudinal location of the Crimean Mountains, even on a relatively small territory of the peninsula, there is a sharp contrast between the temperate steppe climate of the flat part and the almost sub-Mediterranean climate on the southern coast of Crimea.

1.1 Relief and river network

Introduction

The Autonomous Republic of Crimea is located within the boundaries of several physical and geographical regions, including about 50 landscapes. In the north of the peninsula lies the Crimean steppe province, which includes the natural-territorial complexes of the Crimean-Prisivash lowland fescue-feather grass steppe, the Central Crimean lowland feather grass-fescue-fescue-forb steppe and the Kerch hilly petrophytic-xerophytic turf-grass and wormwood steppe.

Crimea is located within 44°23" (Cape Sarych) and 46°15" (Perekopsky Ditch) northern latitude, 32°30" (Cape Karamrun) and 36°40" (Cape Lantern) eastern longitude. The area of ​​the Crimean peninsula is 26.0 thousand km the maximum distance from north to south is 205 km, from west to east - 325 km.

A narrow eight-kilometer strip of land to the north (Perekop Isthmus) connects Crimea with the continents, and is 4 - 5 km wide Kerch Strait in the east (the length of the strait is about 41 km) - they separate it from the Taman Peninsula. The total length of the borders of Crimea exceeds 2,500 km (taking into account the extreme tortuosity of the coastline of the northeast). In general, the coasts of Crimea are little indented; the Black Sea forms three large bays: Karkinitsky, Kalamitsky and Feodosiya; The Sea of ​​Azov also formed three bays: Kazantipsky, Arabatsky and Sivashsky.

The physical and geographical position of Crimea as a whole is distinguished by the following most characteristic features. Firstly, the location of the peninsula at 45° north latitude determines its equidistance from the equator and the North Pole, which is associated with quite big amount incoming solar energy and more hours of sunshine. Secondly, Crimea is almost an island. This is associated, on the one hand, with a large number of endemics (plant species that are not found anywhere except in a given area) and endemics (similar animal species); on the other hand, this explains the significant depletion of the Crimean fauna; In addition, the climate and other components of nature are significantly influenced by the marine environment. Thirdly, the position of the peninsula relative to the general circulation of the Earth’s atmosphere is especially important, leading to the predominance of westerly winds in Crimea. Crimea occupies a border position between the temperate and subtropical geographical zones.

This work consists of contents, introduction, two chapters, conclusion, appendix, bibliography.

I. Physical and geographical features of Crimea

1.1 Relief and river network

The Crimean Peninsula (Fig. 1) is surrounded on almost all sides by the sea from the south by the deep-water part of the Black Sea, from the west by the Evpatoria and Karkinitsky gulfs, and from the east by the Sea of ​​Azov. Along the northern and northeastern coast of Crimea stretches Sivash, a bay of the Sea of ​​Azov, distinguished by a very indented coastline and divided by the Chongar Peninsula into Western and Eastern Sivash. Sivash is separated from the Sea of ​​Azov by a long oblique - the Arabat Spit. The Crimean peninsula is connected to the mainland only by the narrow Perekop Isthmus. The eastern tip of Crimea is called the Kerch Peninsula, which is separated from the Taman Peninsula by the Kerch Strait.

According to the nature of the relief, Crimea is divided into three main parts: southern - mountainous, northern - flat and Kerch Peninsula, characterized by a peculiar hilly-ridge topography. The Crimean Mountains, occupying the smaller, southern part of the Crimean Peninsula, stretch for 160 km along the Black Sea coast from Sevastopol in the west to Feodosia in the east, reaching a maximum width of 50-60 km. Within mountain Crimea The following orographic parts are distinguished: the Main Ridge, the Southern Coast and the Foothill Ridges.

The main ridge of the Tauride Mountains stretches along the Black Sea coast from Cape Aya in the west to the Feodosia Gulf in the east. This is the highest strip of the Crimean mountains; in the central part it reaches absolute elevations of over 1500 m ( highest point Roman-Kosh 1543 m). To the west and east the row gradually decreases. On far west it ends near Balaklava with the Karan heights (316 m), and in the east near Feodosia with the hilly heights of Cape Ilya (310 m). In geomorphological terms, the main series is heterogeneous. Within its boundaries, three sections can be distinguished - western, middle and eastern.

The western low-mountain part, with altitudes from 316 to 1000 m, is located between Cape Aya and Ai-Petrinskaya Yayla and has a length of about 30 km. Here the main ridge consists of a series of rocky ridges and intermountain basins. The heights of the ridges range from 600 to 700 m, the bottoms of the basins have elevations of 300 to 350 m. The basins are connected by gorges or canyons. The largest intermountain basins are: Balaklava, Varnautskaya, Baydarskaya and Uzundzhinskaya.

The middle part of the Main Range of the Crimean Mountains of the Uzundzhin Basin to the river valley. Tanas is a series of high highlands known as yayla: Ai-Petrinskaya, Yalta, Nikitskaya, Babuganskaya, Chatyrdagskaya, Demerdzhi-yayla (Fig. 2), Dolgorukovskaya and Karabi-yayla. The largest highlands reach a width of 10 - 12 km and a length of 20 - 30 km. They are separated from each other by narrow bridges or the upper reaches of river valleys; the most famous passes are usually confined to these areas: Kebit-Bogazsky (600 m), Anarsky (762 m), Baydarsky Gate (520 m) and others. The Yaylinsky uplands, composed of limestones of the upper The Jurassic region is characterized by a very high degree of karst formation: there are many karsts, sinkholes, basins, grottoes, karst wells, mines, caves and other forms. The largest mines are: Molodezhnaya on Karabi-Yayla (depth 261 m) and No. 309 on Ai-Petrinskaya Yayla (depth 246 m). To the number famous caves include the Red Cave (Kizil-Koba) 11,250 m long in the area of ​​the village. Perevalnoe, as well as Thousand-headed and Cold caves on Chatyrdag.

The eastern part of the main ridge, extending 75 km from the river valley. Tanas to the Gulf of Feodosia is a low mountainous region, divided into many separate rocky ridges, small mountain ranges and cliffs, separated by various kinds of depressions. The watershed consists of a series of peaks stretching along the sea, forming the mountains Ayu-Kaya, Terkez, Perchem near Sudak and the Mandzhilsky ridge. The most high peak In eastern Crimea, Mount Kozya (688 m) is located east of Sudak. The main ridge ends with the picturesque Karadag group of mountains between Shchebetovka and Planerskoye. Further to the east, the foothill hilly ridge of Tete-Oba stretches to Cape Ilya. The northernmost mountain in the eastern part of Crimea is Agarmysh, at the foot of which stands Mt. Old Crimea.

All the rivers of the Crimean Peninsula begin on the slopes of the Crimean Mountains, and some of them are completely located within their boundaries. In this regard, the mountainous Crimea is distinguished by a fairly high density of the river network: on the northern slope of the Crimean rops it is 0.24 km/km 2 , and on the northwestern slope 0.30 km/km 2 .

According to their location and some hydrological features, the rivers of the mountainous Crimea are divided into three groups: southern, northern and northwestern slopes.

The rivers on the southern slope of the Main Ridge are very short. The most significant of them are: r. Khostabash near Alupka, the Uchan-Su (Vodopadnaya) and Derekoika (Bystraya) rivers, flowing into the Yalta Bay, the Avunda and Eastern Putamis rivers, flowing into the Gurzuf Bay, the Alushta River or Ulu-Uzen Western and the river. Demerdzhi, flowing into the sea near Alushta, r. Ulu-Uzen East in the Solnechnogorsk region, r. Uskut near the village. Greetings, r. Raven near the village Morskoe, Sydakskaya river within the city of Sydak, Otuzka near the village. Crimean Primorye near Karadag.

The main ridge, composed of fractured and karst limestones in the upper part and well moistened, plays the role of an important drainage basin for the rivers of the southern group. However, the rock layers composing this ridge fall to the north and northwest, so the surface, and also, apparently, the deep watersheds of the Crimean Mountains are very shifted to the south. All this determines the insignificant length of rivers, their small drainage areas, low water content, large slopes and flow speeds. In some places, the rivers of the southern group form waterfalls: Uchan-Su on the river of the same name, Golovkinsky on the Alushta River, Dzhur-Dzhur on the Ulu-Uzen East.

The rivers of the southern group are also distinguished by the short duration of the spring flood. In conditions of warm and mild winter and autumn, melting snow and falling rain often lead to powerful rises in the level of rivers in this group.

The rivers of the northern slopes of the Crimean Mountains flow into the Sea of ​​Azov, more precisely into its Sivash Bay. This is the Salrir with its right tributaries: the Small Salgir, Zuya, Beshterek, Burulcha and Bolshoi Karasu, Tanas, then the Eastern Bulganak and Indol. The deepest river in Crimea is the Salgir.

The rivers of the northwestern slopes of the main ridge flow into the Black Sea on the western coast of Crimea. These are Western Bulganak, Alma, Kacha, Belbek, Chernaya. All rivers in the mountainous Crimea are fed by numerous springs, most of them karst.

The northern and northwestern slopes of the Crimean mountain uplift are much wider and flatter than the southern one. In this regard, the rivers here are longer, have larger drainage areas, smaller slopes, less rapid currents and are fuller.

The thinness of the snow cover, the high absorption of melt water by karst cavities, which convert surface runoff into underground runoff, all determine the feeding characteristics of the Crimean rivers. As a rule, they are among the rivers of mixed feeding, but with a predominance of rainwater, which accounts for 44-52% of the annual flow. Groundwater provides 28-36% of the annual runoff, and snow supply accounts for 13-23% of the average annual runoff. The annual regime of levels and flows of the Crimean rivers is characterized by great variability.

Crimea relief climate geographical

The flow of the most significant rivers is regulated: on the Salir rivers near Simferopol, Biyuk-Karasu near Belororsk, Alma near the village. Pochtovoe, Kacha near Bakhchisarai, Belbek near the village. Schastlivoe, Chernaya in the Baydar Basin and other reservoirs were built. In the river basins of the mountainous Crimea, mudflows are observed. This phenomenon is especially typical for the eastern part of the southern slope of the Main Ridge, where sometimes huge alluvial cones are formed at the mouths of ravines and river valleys, causing great damage and destruction to gardens, vineyards, and tobacco plantations.

The southern coast of Crimea is the lower, coastal, most flat part of the southern slope of the Main Ridge from Cape Aya in the west to Planersko in the east. Its width is from 1 - 2 to 6 - 8 km, maximum height 400 - 450 m. The formation of the steep southern slope of the Crimean Mountains was caused by intense uplifts of recent geological time in the area of ​​the main ridge and subsidence of the Black Sea bottom. The relief of the southern coast of Crimea is given great originality by intrusive massifs prepared by denudation (the Kuchuk-Ayu rocks near the village of Frunzenskoye and Kuchuk-Lambat between Gurzuf and Alushta, mountain ranges Bear Mountain, or Ayu-Dag, near Gurzuf and Kastel near Alushta, the small Pilyaki-Khyr mountain range near Simeiz and the complex Karadag mountain group).

In the most picturesque western part between the Baydar Gate and Alushta, where Alupka, Yalta, Gurzuf and most of the sanatoriums and resorts are located, the southern coast is very narrow. Between Alushta and Sudak, the mountains depart from the sea and a wide strip of small ridges and hills stretches along the coast. Near Sudak, rocky hills again approach the shore itself. To the east, beyond Cape Megan, near the Karadag and Koktebel bays, the coastal strip is insignificantly wide, and at the foot of Karadag it disappears completely. Koktebel Bay is bordered on the east by the narrow cape Kiik-Atlama, stretched out into the sea.

The southern coast is distinguished by great erosional dissection; its landscape is characterized by numerous gullies and ravines (Fig. 3), terraced river valleys and well-pronounced erosion amphitheaters in the western half of the southern coast (Yalta, Gurzuf, Alushta, etc.). Very typical of the South Coast are numerous limestone blocks that clutter river valleys and ravines and often completely cover watershed spaces. There are also individual limestone rocks (Sugar traps in the Laspinsky region, Isary rocks near the Blue Bay, Foros, Koshka and Diva rocks near Simeiz, Genoese in Gurzuf, etc.), mountain ranges (Laspi, Krestovaya near Alupka, Alchak, Sokol and Orel near Sudak) and ridges (Mogabi Mountains, Ai-Todorsky, Macsandrovsky and Nikitsky ridges). Landslide processes are widely developed on the southern coast; in some places there are landslide terraces, mounds and basins. The nature of the coast along its entire length is abrasion-bay with sand, gravel and pebble beaches.

Foothill ridges border the main ridge from the north, stretching for about 120 km and reaching a width of 20 - 30 km. In total, there are two cuesta ridges, the First Mountain and the External (formerly they were called the Second and Third ridges of the Crimean Mountains), separated from each other and from the main ridge by depressions called longitudinal valleys. The foothill range stretches from Inkerman in the west to Staporo Crimea in the east. In the western part (near Bakhchisarai) the ridge reaches a height of 500 - 590 m, east of the city of Simferopol it is weakly expressed, in the area of ​​the city of Belogorsk its height increases again and reaches 739 m (Mount Kubalach). The southern, eroded slope of the Piedmont ridge is steep, highly dissected and often steep. In some places, completely isolated erosional remnants are observed, plunging steeply in all directions.

The outer ridge begins with Sapungora near Sevastopol and stretches to Simferopol. Further it is poorly expressed and to the east it gradually disappears completely. The ridge reaches its greatest height (349 m) in the Bakhchisarai region. Its southern slope is also steep, while the northern slope is gently sloping and, gradually descending, merges with the plain stretching at the foot of the mountains. Its eastern continuation is the Parpach ridge of the Kerch Peninsula.

Longitudinal valleys, which are wide zones of depressions washed in loose tertiary and chalk clays and marls, are fertile areas, many settlements, gardens and important roads are confined to them. The terraced river valleys that cross them widen here, while in areas where cuesta ridges break through they often have a canyon-like character.

The Crimean plain is a relatively flat surface, gradually rising to the south, towards the Crimean Mountains. The following are distinguished here: Western Crimean, Eastern Crimean, Central, Tarkhankut and North Crimean plains.

The Western Crimean lowland plain corresponds structurally to the Alma depression. Its border in the east generally coincides with the watershed between the rivers and ravines flowing into the Black and Azov Seas, respectively. This is an almost flat, slightly dissected and slightly inclined plain towards the sea, cut through by shallow ravines and the lower reaches of the Belbek, Kacha, Alma, and Western Bulganak rivers. There are many salt lakes in the coastal zone: Oyburskoye, Solenoye, Mainakskoye, Sasyk-Sivashskoye, Sakskoye, Kizil-Yarskoye and a number of smaller ones. The most big lake The Western Crimean Plain and the entire Crimea is Lake Sasyk-Sivash, separated from the sea by a sandy embankment 13 km long and up to 1 km wide. Lakes Saki and Mainak are widely known for their healing mud. The seashore in the described area is generally flat, concave, with a slight break at Cape Lukul. To the north of Lake Kizil-Yar the shore is accumulative, low and flat, to the south of the said lake it is abrasive, relatively high and steep.

The East Crimean lowland plain, corresponding structurally to the Indole depression, is limited in the west by the valley of the river. Big Karasu. The plain gradually decreases to the northeast towards Sivash. It is cut through by rather long ravines, originating at the northern foothills of the Crimean Mountains, as well as by the valleys of the Salgir, Biyuk-Karasu, Eastern Bulganak, Wet and Sukhoi Indol, Churuk-Su, and other rivers, which usually dry up in summer. The river valleys are shallow, with weakly pronounced terraces, with the exception of floodplains, which are well developed and represent important agricultural land. In the coastal strip at an altitude of 1-3 m above sea level, an estuary-marine terrace with solonetzic soils has developed. The coast of Eastern Sivash is low, abrasion-accumulative, but strongly dissected.

The central elevated plain, corresponding structurally to the Simferopol uplift, is located in the central part of the Crimean Peninsula. Its height gradually decreases from south to north, and the flat surface is complicated by gullies and valleys of the Salgir and its tributaries (Zuya, Burulcha). In the river valleys, the modern floodplain and the first above-floodplain terraces are well defined (the latter in the Salgir valley reaches 1-2 km in width). The first terrace above the floodplain gradually and almost imperceptibly turns into a wide flat interfluve. Burial grounds and guard mounds are very characteristic of the landscape of the Central Plain.

The Tarkhankut high plain in the north is limited by the line Bakal Spit- With. Luxurious, in the east - Chatyrlyk beam. In the south, its border runs north of Evpatoria. The relief of the Tarkhankut elevated plain is very complex: in the east there is the East Tarkhankut Plateau, reaching a height of 120-130 m, and in the western part the relief shows four ridges alternating from south to north, separated by depressions. The surface of the plain is strongly dissected: in the depressions there are long, winding and relatively flat ravines, shorter and steeper ravines cut through the slopes of the ridges. The shallow occurrence of Neogene limestones and their frequent exposure to the day surface determine the fairly widespread development of karst (karrs, ponoras, saucers, small grottoes and caves). The karstization of limestones varies: in some places it appears to a depth of several tens of meters, in others - up to 100-120 m, in others - their entire thickness is karstified.

In the coastal zone of the Tarkhankut high plain there are a number of salt lakes of the estuary type: Dzharylgach, Bakalskoye, Panskoye, Liman and Donuzlav (Fig. 4). The last lake is a large body of water, stretching for more than 30 km in the north-east direction and reaching a depth of over 25 m. The shores of the lake are winding, mostly steep.

The banks of the Tarkhankutskaya elevated plain are of abrasion type, high (30-50 m), steep. The mechanical and dissolving effect of water led to greater dissection of the coastal cliff, the formation of layered steps with a mass of various types of depressions, niches, grottoes and caves. On the Dzhangulsky section of the coast, stretching 5 km north of Cape Kapa-Murun, landslides are widespread (Fig. 5, 6). At the base of a high (up to 60 m) coastal cliff lie Sarmatian clays, along which overlying limestones slide into the sea. Landslide cirques, terraces, bores, bulging shafts and blocky collapses are widely developed here.

The North Crimean lowland plain is limited in the south by the line Bakalskaya Spit - the city of Nizhnegorsk - the mouth of Salgir. Structurally, it represents the Sivash depression. This is a completely flat plain, gradually rising to the south. Geomorphologically, this is an area of ​​Pliocene and Quaternary accumulation. The retreat of Sivash due to the rise of the lowland in the modern era led to the formation of a terrace 1.5-2.5 m high above sea level, overlain by liman-marine sediments. The monotony of the lowland is somewhat broken by pods (steppe saucers), dry valleys and ravines of Samarchik, Chatyrlykskaya, Stepnaya, Pobednaya, giving it a slightly undulating character in places. In the valleys of dry rivers there are river terraces. Dry rivers and large gullies flow into the narrow bays of Sivash and Karkinitsky Bay, which are estuaries, i.e. mouth parts of river valleys and gullies flooded by the sea. A characteristic geomorphological element of the coastal zone are lakes of the estuary type, the largest and practically important of them are the lakes of the Perekop group (Staroe, Krasnoye, Kiyatskoye, Kerleutskoye, Aigulskoye). The lakes have an elongated shape from northwest to southeast, their shores are quite high and steep. The sea shores of the estuary-type lowland are very winding, low, steep, and in places flat.

The Arabat Spit, separating Sivash from the Sea of ​​Azov, is a narrow alluvial sand-shell bar created by the activity of the surf and sea currents. In the southern part, its width is about 1 km, height 4-5 m, to the north the spit widens significantly and consists of several former islands connected by embankments up to 20-25 m high.

Only in the southernmost part of the Crimean plain, adjacent to the mountains, is there a sparse river network; throughout the rest of the territory there are only ravines, ravines and dry rivers.

There is water in them only when the snow melts and after rainstorms. Therefore, irrigation structures are extremely important for the lowland Crimea; the Northern-Crimean Canal is currently being built there.

In the Crimean plain there are more than fifty salt lakes located near the coast.

According to geomorphological features, the Kerch Peninsula is divided into two regions: southwestern and northeastern. The border between these areas runs along the Parpachsky ridge composed of limestones, coming from the village. Vladislavovka east to the village. Marfovka and further with a bend south to Cape Opuk. In orographic terms, the ridge is a ridge with usually gentle northern and steep southern slopes; in some cases it is barely noticeable in the relief, in others it takes on the character of well-defined hills or a rather high ledge, very dissected by erosion.

The southwestern region is a undulating, hilly, erosion-denudation lowland plain. Gentle hills and hills up to 50-80 m high (Jau-Tepe, Dyurmen) are usually separated here by flat-bottomed, often extensive depressions occupied by salt marshes.

There are small depressions of subsidence origin - pods, or coli. The area is characterized by active mud hills. The largest of them is Jau Tepe. The beams are shallowly embedded, gently sloping, and often highly branched in the upper reaches. On the coast there are Quaternary marine terraces up to 20 m above sea level (Chaudinskaya).

The northeastern region is a hilly ridge plain with a complex combination of anticlinal basins surrounded by rocky limestone ridges and synclinal valleys separating them. Anticlinal basins are confined to the cores of anticlines, composed in most cases of easily eroded clays. A characteristic, fairly common form of relief are mud hills (Fig. 7). They are usually confined to anticlines, reaching in some places relative height 30-40 m and have a cone-shaped shape.

There are many salt lakes in the coastal zone. The largest of them are Aktashskoe, Chokrakskoe, Churubashskoe, Tobechinskoe, etc. On steep slopes, landslides with detachment walls and landslide bodies, sometimes terraced, are well developed in the relief. On the sea coast of the Kerch Peninsula there are areas of steep, abrasive and accumulative low-lying coast with sand-pebble and sand-shell beaches, spits and bay-bars.

1.2 Climate

The climate is one of the most important factors formation of landscapes. It determines the main pattern of landscape geography - their wide zonality. The climate of most of Crimea can be characterized as a temperate climate - soft steppe in the flat part, more humid broad-leaved forest in the mountains. The southern coast of Crimea is characterized by a sub-Mediterranean climate of dry forests and bushes.

The climate of any territory is formed by three mutually related atmospheric processes: heat exchange, moisture circulation and general atmospheric circulation. These processes occur in the specific geographical setting of the territory. Consequently, climate characteristics and their distribution depend on these geographical factors. The main ones are: geographic latitude of the place, altitude above sea level, distribution of land and sea, relief (orography), underlying landscape surface (vegetation, snow and other covers). A special place is occupied by human activities that influence climate-forming processes by changing certain geographical factors. All factors, naturally, act simultaneously, and we separate them only for the convenience of study.

1.2.1 Geographic climate factors

Geographic latitude mainly determines the solar radiation regime. Geographical zonality in the distribution of climate elements depends on it.

The Crimean peninsula, located in the south of Ukraine, is provided with a large amount of heat not only in summer, but also in winter.

The radiation regime mainly depends on the duration of sunshine, which, in turn, is determined by the geographic latitude and topography of the place, and the cloudiness regime. Crimea is one of the sunniest regions of Ukraine. The annual duration of sunshine here varies between 2180-2470 hours. The maximum duration occurs in July (320-360 hours). It is especially great on the flat sea coast, where breeze winds prevent the formation of clouds (Evpatoria, 365 hours).

Of the annual amount of radiation, Crimea receives approximately 10% in winter, 30% in spring, 40% in summer and 20% in autumn. The unequal intensity of total radiation throughout the year depends mainly on changes in the height of the sun, the length of the day, the number and shape of clouds, the transparency of the atmosphere, as well as on humidity, color and, accordingly, the reflective properties of the surface of landscapes (their albedo).

Although in spring Crimea receives one and a half times more heat from the sun than in autumn, nevertheless, spring is cooler than autumn. This is due to the large heat consumption in the spring to heat the soil, evaporate moisture from it, and heat the upper layers of water cooled during the winter in the Azov and Black Seas. In autumn, much less heat is consumed for these purposes, and the air receives additional heat from the soil and water that have warmed up over the summer.

The total heat supply of a territory is determined by the value of its radiation balance, which represents the difference between its absorbed total radiation and effective radiation. The radiation balance is positive if the underlying surface absorbs more heat than it loses, and negative if, on the contrary, this surface absorbs less heat than it releases into the surrounding space. In general, the radiation balance in Crimea for the year is positive. Only the monthly averages for December and January are negative on the Yayls.

With altitude above sea level (in the mountains), changes in the climatic properties of places are much greater than changes associated with movement across geographical latitude. A special one is being created mountain climate. With altitude, atmospheric pressure decreases, air transparency and radiation become especially effective. For this reason, despite the increase in solar radiation with increasing altitude, the radiation balance, air temperature and the amplitude of its daily variation decrease. In Crimea, with every 100 m rise, the radiation balance decreases by an average of 25 MJ/(year m2), and the air temperature decreases by 0.65°. At the same time, the amount of precipitation and, as a rule, wind speed increase with altitude. For this reason, altitudinal climatic zonality appears in the mountains, which, in turn, determines the same zonality in the distribution of other landscape components, especially soil and vegetation cover.

The distribution of land and sea is primarily associated with the identification of marine and continental climate types. The position of a place relative to the coastline greatly influences the regime of air temperature and humidity, cloudiness and precipitation, and determines the degree of continentality of its climate. True, the position of the place in the conditions of general atmospheric circulation also plays an important role.

Crimea is surrounded by the Black Sea, which is large in area (412 thousand km2), volume (537 thousand km3) and depth, and the small (about 38 thousand km2), with a volume of 300 km3, shallow Sea of ​​Azov. At the same time, the peninsula is located among a large land area in the northern half of the eastern hemisphere, which can also be called the Eastern continent. On maps reflecting the degree of continentality of the climate of the regions of Southern Europe, Crimea, with the exception of the Sivash region, is located together with the coast of the eastern Mediterranean in the area outlined by the zero isoline of continentality. Thus, the climate of almost all of Crimea is less continental than even the climate of the waters of the Azov and northwestern parts of the Black Sea.

Large landforms (orography) have a major impact on climate. Air currents are delayed and deflected by ridges, and weather fronts are deformed. In the narrow passages between the ridges, the speed of air currents changes, and local mountain-valley winds arise. Over differently oriented slopes, unequal heating and cooling conditions are created, and therefore different air and soil temperature regimes. Due to the flow of air currents through the ridges on the windward slopes of the mountains, especially at lower and narrow saddles and passes, conditions for increased cloudiness and precipitation are formed. On the leeward slopes, on the contrary, fen winds occur with higher temperatures and low air humidity. Over heated mountain slopes, air convection and, consequently, cloud formation increase.

Warm air coming to Crimea from the south, due to the significant vertical thickness, penetrates relatively freely through the low Crimean Mountains into the steppe regions of the peninsula. When cold, dense Arctic air, which, on the contrary, has a small vertical thickness, invades, the mountains prevent its penetration to the South Coast. Consequently, for the Southern Coast, the Crimean Mountains play the most protective role from the Arctic cold in winter. This can be seen from a comparison of the air temperature in the central part of the Crimean plain (Krasnogvardeyskoe), where in January it is - 2°, and in Yalta + 4°, and its absolute minimum in the first point reached - 33°, and in the second - 15°.

If there were no mountains in Crimea, then the Southern Coast would be little different from the steppe coast of the Black and Azov Seas. Consequently, the Crimean Mountains are associated not only with large differences in the climates of the Southern Coast and the rest of the peninsula, but also with significant overall landscape differences between these territories. In this case, the role of the height of the Crimean Mountains is not so great as their general direction from west to east, parallel to the coast.

The formation of climate is greatly influenced by the underlying surface, i.e. the surface with which solar radiation and the atmosphere interact. Thus, the temperature of the soil and ground air also depends on vegetation and snow cover. Dense grass cover reduces the daily amplitude and average temperature of the soil, and, consequently, the air. A large contrast between daytime solar heating and nighttime cooling in summer is typical for the surfaces of loose dark soil, paved areas, and pebble beaches.

The forest has a more significant, unique and complex influence on the climate, which allows many scientists to talk about its special phytoclimate. The crown not only supports solar radiation, but also changes its spectral composition, absorbing most of the ultraviolet rays. At night, the forest retains outgoing long-wave thermal radiation, which noticeably changes the temperature of the soil and air above its canopy. In the summer in the Crimean forest, the air temperature during the day is often 2-3°, and the soil is even 25-30° lower than at open place. In winter, the average monthly air temperature is higher in forests by 0.2-0.5°, and in the parks of the South Coast - by 1.5-2°.

During the warm season, there is usually higher air humidity under the forest canopy. At noon, in a pine forest it is often 4-5% higher, in a beech forest by 9-10%, in parks - by 3-7%, than in open areas. Tree crowns intercept precipitation. The proportion of precipitation intercepted depends on the type of forest and its density. Coniferous tree species usually retain more precipitation than deciduous trees. Their share accounts for up to 50-55%, and deciduous ones for about 35% of the total precipitation in an open area.

The forest is also a good moisture storage facility. During the slow melting of snow during rain, the forest soil absorbs a lot of water, which then significantly affects the nutrition of springs and rivers. One hectare of Crimean mountain forest can transfer intrasoil runoff to 5-6 thousand cubic meters. m of water. The forest greatly reduces the wind speed. In the depths of even a leafless forest, its speed often decreases by more than half compared to open areas.

Snow cover reduces soil heat loss and temperature fluctuations. The surface of the cover itself strongly reflects solar radiation during the day and is greatly cooled by radiation at night. In spring, a lot of heat from the ground air is spent on melting the snow cover, but the soil is enriched with moisture.

Man influences nature and climate through his economic activity. The result of this impact is predominantly negative. The reduction in forest area has a particularly large impact. Over the past 1000 years, they have decreased by 50-70% in the world, and in Crimea - by about one and a half times.

On large areas a decrease in solar radiation also occurs due to atmospheric pollution by industrial enterprises and transport, which emit large amounts of impurities (aerosols) consisting of fuel combustion products and dust into the air. Every year, their total mass in the world is over 4 billion. About 20 billion tons of carbon dioxide enter the Earth’s atmosphere from fuel combustion, which, as many scientists believe, can significantly increase air temperatures in the future. As a result of this, the melting of ice will increase (primarily in the Arctic and Antarctic), and the level of the World Ocean will rise (flooding of the most populated low-lying areas of the Earth, etc.).

Observations from satellites show that about 10-15% of the surface of the World Ocean (and this corresponds approximately to the area of ​​Eurasia - 53 million km2) is simultaneously covered with an oil film. It also reduces evaporation from the water surface by about 10%. Due to such anthropogenic pollution of the World Ocean, evaporation from its surface, according to scientists, is reduced by approximately 5,000 km3 of water, which naturally affects its flow to land, including Crimea.

Along with this, people improve the climate in some places by irrigation, planting forests, forest belts and other reclamation measures. Thanks to them, the albedo of the underlying surface decreases, the air is moistened, the soil temperature decreases in summer, etc.

1.2.2 Atmospheric circulation

In general, the western zonal air transport predominates over the peninsula, which is largely blocked by large atmospheric eddies - cyclones and anticyclones, which, in turn, produce inter-latitudinal air exchange. The activity of meteorological processes is determined, therefore, by cyclonic activity - the emergence, development and movement of cyclones and anticyclones in the atmosphere. In turn, this activity depends on the interaction of pressure zones called centers of action of the atmosphere. A cyclone is an atmospheric vortex with lower pressure at its center and winds directed counterclockwise toward its center in the northern hemisphere. Anticyclone - an area of ​​high atmospheric pressure with wind from the center clockwise (in the northern hemisphere).

Atmospheric circulation over Crimea has its own characteristics. Compared to the central and northern regions of Ukraine, atmospheric processes are less active here, cyclonic activity is weaker, anticyclones are more pronounced, especially in summer season. They erode atmospheric fronts and contribute to the formation of air masses with local properties.

The greatest probability of precipitation in Crimea occurs when continental and sea tropical air enters (especially in the autumn-winter season), as well as sea air from the temperate zone. Droughts and hot winds most often occur when powerful anticyclones form and when continental tropical air enters from Asia Minor. The intensity and frequency of these hazardous weather phenomena in Crimea is highly dependent on local conditions.

The greatest amount of precipitation falls in Crimea during the passage of cyclone meteorological fronts. Scientists have calculated that from March to October 152 thousand km3 of moisture enters the airspace of Crimea, and from November to February - 230.4 thousand km3. Of this amount, 43.6% of moisture falls in the form of precipitation in the warm period of the year, and in cold - 15.5%. Consequently, in winter there is less precipitation in Crimea than in summer. Precipitation on average accounts for 27.6% of the amount of moisture contained in the airspace of Crimea during the year. By studying the ways of influencing meteorological processes, this share can be significantly increased. The reserve for increasing the volume of moisture recapture is quite sufficient.

The peculiarities of the geographical location of Crimea determine the special regime of circulation processes above it, on which the weather depends, and the meteorological elements that form the weather (according to the seasons of the year).

In winter, over the southern part of Ukraine in the latitudinal direction, an axis of high atmospheric pressure is often established (two maxima are connected - Asian and Azores), and over the Black Sea - a zone of low pressure. As a result, cold and dry continental air of temperate latitudes or Arctic air often invades Crimea. It is associated with sharp drops in air temperature and frequent recurrence of strong northeastern winds, especially in the steppe and northeastern parts of the mountainous Crimea. In the same season, cyclones with relatively frequent Mediterranean Sea, in the warm sectors of which marine tropical air moves. Mediterranean cyclones, as a rule, linger in the northwestern part of the Black Sea. As a result, warm air primarily affects the southwestern part of the mountainous Crimea. As a result, winter in Crimea is relatively wet everywhere, with frequent precipitation and low evaporation. Due to frequent thaws in winter, air temperatures fluctuate greatly, and the snow cover is unstable and thin.

Spring in Crimea proceeds quickly, thanks to an increase in the height of the sun and the length of the day, a decrease in cloudiness due to the spread of the Azores anticyclone here and the influx of southern warm air. In the interior regions of Crimea, there is a significant increase in air temperature from February to March, and on the sea coast, spring is delayed by 1.5-2 months due to the cooling influence of the sea, especially the Azov Sea. Spring is the driest and windiest season of the year. In spring there are often “returns of cold weather” with night frosts and morning frosts, especially in the basins and river valleys of the foothills, which negatively affects early flowering stone fruit trees and heat-loving grapes.

In summer, an anticyclonic field with small pressure drops is established over the south of Ukraine and the Black Sea. Due to this, clear, hot and low-wind weather prevails in Crimea with the manifestation of local breezes and mountain-valley and slope winds. Due to the fact that continental air of temperate latitudes is transformed here into local tropical air, dry weather prevails in Crimea.

Precipitation in summer is brought to Crimea by marine air masses of temperate latitudes and Atlantic cyclones. Heavy, intense, but most often short-term rainfall occurs. If tropical air settles for a long time, thermal thunderstorms and also short-term precipitation develop.

The summer type of atmospheric circulation begins in the second half of May and continues until the end of September. Thus, summer in Crimea lasts 4-5 months.

Autumn in Crimea - best season of the year. The weather is calm, sunny and moderately warm. Autumn is warmer than spring by 2-3° in central and by 4-5° in coastal regions, which is primarily due to the influence of the seas and the persistence of the anticyclone over Crimea.

A sharp change in weather occurs, as a rule, in the second half of November due to a change from the summer type of atmospheric circulation to the winter one.

1.2.3 Characteristics of meteorological elements

One of the main elements of climate is air temperature. In Crimea, the annual change in air temperature almost coincides with the change in the influx of solar radiation. Average monthly temperatures air mainly changes from north to south, with the exception of the South Coast, where the change occurs to the east and west. Most often, the coldest month is January or February, especially on the sea coast. The lowest average temperature (-4°) in January is observed in the mountains, and the highest (about 5°) is observed on the South Coast. The highest average monthly temperature most often occurs in July, when it reaches 23-24° in most of the peninsula, and 16° in the mountains.

During the day, the lowest temperatures are observed before sunrise, and the highest - at 12-14 hours. The highest daily air temperatures are in valleys and pits (especially in the foothills) with difficult air flow, and the lowest in elevated places with good air exchange. Breeze winds reduce daytime temperatures and increase nighttime temperatures, as a result of which the diurnal amplitude on the sea coast is less than far from the sea. At a distance of 10-15 km from the seashore, the daily amplitude of air temperature increases by 1.5-2 times. In all months, temperature amplitudes can reach 20-26° in the steppe, and 15-20° in the rest of Crimea. During calm and clear weather, the daily amplitude is almost twice as large as during cloudy and windy weather.

The minimum air temperature in Crimea is observed during the invasion of continental Arctic air. The absolute minimum air temperature occurs mainly in January - February. It is in the central part of the steppe - 30. - 32, and in the foothills - up to - 35. - 37.

A decrease in air or soil temperature to 0° and below during a period of generally positive temperature is called frost. They usually occur at night or early morning in clear, calm weather as a result of intense radiation cooling of the underlying surface. The most frost-hazardous areas are the valleys and peaks of the Crimean Mountains (150-160 days), and the least dangerous are the South Coast (frost-free 240-260 days).

Based on the average dates of the stable transition of the average daily air temperature through 0° and 15°, the year is conventionally divided into climatic seasons.

Summer is considered to be the period limited by the dates of transition of the average daily air temperature through 15°. Summer arrives earliest on the South Coast - at the end of the first ten days of May, and later in the mountains - in the first ten days of July (Ai-Petri). However, approximately every third year such a stable transition in air temperature in the mountains is not observed, i.e. there is no summer season. Summer in Crimea is the longest season, it lasts from 150-160 days on the South Coast to 130-140 days on the rest of the peninsula, except for the mountains.

An integral part of the water balance of the atmosphere is air humidity. The formation of cloudiness and precipitation largely depend on its magnitude. The main source of air enrichment with moisture is the water of the seas and oceans, which, evaporating from their surface, is carried in the form of water vapor by air currents to various regions of the Earth.

A distinction is made between absolute and relative air humidity. Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapor contained in a unit volume of air (expressed in grams per 1 m 3 of air). The health and well-being of people and the conditions for growing plants are significantly influenced not by absolute, but by relative air humidity, which is the ratio of the actual content of water vapor in the air to its maximum possible content at a given temperature (expressed as a percentage). The annual and daily change in relative humidity is opposite to the change in air temperature. Relative humidity is lowest in summer and highest in winter.

Of particular interest is information on relative air humidity at 13:00, when its values ​​approach a minimum. Days when it reaches 80% or more at this time are usually considered wet, and those days when it drops to 30% or less are very dry. In the winter months, midday relative humidity in Crimea varies from 60% in the foothills to 65-76% in the rest of the territory, and in the summer from 40-44% in the steppe and foothills to 50-55% on the sea coast and on the yayla. In Crimea in the summer months, due to the dry air, vacationers feel much better than, for example, on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, where at this time the relative air humidity at noon rises to 70-75% and higher.

Along with air temperature, precipitation is an important element of climate. Due to the complex structure of the relief and the peculiarities of atmospheric circulation, they are distributed very unevenly across the territory of Crimea - from 250 mm per year in the steppe to 1000 mm or more in the mountains. Most of the peninsula is characterized by insufficient moisture, especially the sea coast, where precipitation falls 100-150 mm less than even in central regions go blind.

The conditions for the distribution of precipitation across the peninsula largely depend on the Crimean Mountains, which, although not high, nevertheless contribute to increased thermal and dynamic turbulence (vortex movement) of the air, its rise and the formation of a mountain humidification regime.

Circulation features and the combined influence of the Crimean Mountains and the Black Sea determine the formation of a subtropical (sub-Mediterranean) climate zone, especially in the southwestern part of the peninsula. Here, on the South Coast, although approximately as much precipitation (430-550 mm) falls per year as in the steppe regions, most of it, as in the Mediterranean countries, falls during the cold period. They are associated with Mediterranean winter cyclones.

In addition to the uneven distribution of precipitation across the peninsula, its amount fluctuates sharply from year to year. With an average value of 340-425 mm, their annual amount varies in the steppe regions from 115-250 to 490-720 mm, in the foothills at 450-490 mm - from 190-340 to 715-870 mm, on the southern coast at 430-550 mm - from 160-280 to 1030 mm, on western yailas at 960 mm from 410 to 1650 mm. For the normal growth of most plants in the main areas of the peninsula, a precipitation amount of at least 500 mm per year is required.

Precipitation is also unevenly distributed across the seasons. Thus, in the steppe and foothill Crimea, their maximum occurs in June - July, on the South Coast and in the southern part of the mountains - in January or December, on the western and eastern coasts precipitation falls relatively evenly throughout the year.

In Crimea, on average, 80-85% of the annual precipitation falls in the form of rain. Solid precipitation accounts for less than 10%, and mixed precipitation - 5-8%. In the mountains, the proportion of liquid precipitation decreases with altitude. So, on Ai-Petri they make up only 49%.

The number of days with rain ranges from 80-130 in steppe regions to 150-170 in the mountains. In summer in Crimea there are no more than 5-10 days with rain per month. However, it is not uncommon to experience exceptionally heavy rainfall. During heavy rains in ravines and rivers, there are often large mudflows of mud and stones, which rush at the speed of a train and reach a height of 23 m in narrow places of the riverbeds. They cause great destruction: they destroy bridges, wash away roads, wash away the fertile layer of soil or deposit powerful sediments in gardens, vineyards, etc. Mudflows can occur on almost any river or gully in the mountainous Crimea, but most often they occur in the area between Alushta and Sudak.

The uneven distribution of precipitation in winter across the territory of Crimea also causes uneven distribution of snow cover. Since winters in Crimea are relatively warm, with frequent thaws, most of the peninsula does not have stable winter cover in eight out of ten winters. The snow cover is stable only in the mountains, where the duration of its occurrence lasts on average 70-90 days, with fluctuations from year to year from 30 to 150 days. In the plain and foothill Crimea, stable snow cover, which lasts for at least a month, occurs only in winters with heavy snow. The total number of days with snow cover is 20-30 in the steppe, and about 40 days in the foothills. The smallest number on the coast is only 10-20 days.

An important meteorological element is also wind, or the movement of air relative to the earth's surface. It is characterized by speed (m/s or in arbitrary points) and the direction from which it blows. The movement of air from place to place occurs under the influence of differences in atmospheric pressure and friction.

The frequency of wind directions and speeds in Crimea is predominantly influenced by the spur of the Azores anticyclone in the warm period of the year, and by the Asian anticyclone in the cold season. Large changes in atmospheric pressure occur when cyclones and active atmospheric fronts, especially cold ones in winter, approach Crimea. By the way, sharp fluctuations in pressure during the day aggravate cardiovascular diseases in not completely healthy people.

During the year, winds from the north-east, south-west and north-west directions prevail in Crimea. In winter, the frequency of northeast winds is 45%, southwest 25%, south up to 20%. During late autumn and winter, it is not uncommon for very strong northeasterly winds to continue for 270-325 hours per month. During these winds, the air temperature is usually 8-10° lower than during winds from other directions. In cases where northeastern winds are accompanied by the invasion of Arctic air, severe cold snaps occur in Crimea.

In the spring, due to the weakening of cyclonic activity in the steppe Crimea, northeastern and northwestern winds blow equally often, and southern winds blow on the Black Sea coast. In May, the frequency of northeastern winds gradually decreases due to the strengthening of the action of the spur of the Azores anticyclone. From June to mid-August, weak westerly and north-westerly winds usually prevail, lasting up to 300-350 hours per month.

In addition to directions, the characteristics of wind speeds are important. The highest wind speeds are observed in late winter - early spring, and the lowest in summer. In winter, average speeds in the mountains are 7 m/s or more, in the western and east coast 6 m/s, on the South Coast 3 m/s, and in protected valleys and basins of the foothills less than 3 m/s. In summer, even on Ai-Petri and Karabi-Yayla, average wind speeds do not exceed 5 m/s.

Strong winds or storms (more than 15 m/s) occur an uneven number of times in different regions of Crimea. During the year, in the foothills they usually last 10-17 days, on the southern coast - 20-24, on the west coast - up to 40, in the central steppe regions - 12-28, and on the mountain tops - 80-85 days.

Hurricanes (winds over 34 m/s) are menacing natural phenomena. In Crimea they usually occur during prolonged storm winds northeast direction, less often during southwestern storms. Such winds uproot trees, tear off poorly reinforced roofs, break power lines, etc.

In addition to the winds of the general circulation of the atmosphere, local winds are also observed in Crimea: breezes, mountain-valley and foehn.

Breezes blow during the day from the sea to the land (sea breezes), and at night, on the contrary, from the land to the sea (shore breezes). Most often (17-18 days per month) breezes blow in July and August. In the evening, during the period between changes in breeze directions, there is often complete calm, lasting for 2-3 hours. This is the best time for evening walks. The speed of these winds does not exceed 6-7 m/s during the day and 5 m/s at night. Only in Evpatoria and Kerch the speed of the sea breeze sometimes reaches 9 m/s. Sea breezes extend 20-30 km deep into the Crimean plain, and 2-4 km deep into the Southern Coast. On hot days, sea breezes sometimes lower the air temperature on the shore by more than 15-16° compared to the temperature 10 km from the coast.

Mountain-valley winds, like breezes, blow upward during the day and down the valley at night. On the South Coast, mountain-valley winds are superimposed by breezes. The speed of mountain-valley winds during the day is within 3-7 m/s, and at night - only 1-2 m/s. Streams of cool mountain-valley forest air saturated with phytoncides in summer have an extremely beneficial effect on humans.

In the Crimean Mountains in winter or spring, a warm and dry fen wind often forms. The relative humidity of the air sometimes drops to only 8%. Hair dryers last from several hours to 2-3 days. They are especially frequent in Simeiz.

Dust storms sometimes occur in the steppe Crimea. They occur during dry and windy weather in almost all months of the year. They worsen the sanitary and hygienic conditions of cities, damage crops, carry away the upper part of the arable horizon from the fields and fill gardens, vineyards, forest belts, etc. with fine earth.

Depending on the terrain conditions (plains, mountain ranges, river valleys, slopes of different exposures, etc.) mesoclimates are formed ( local climates) - climates of large territories (from several kilometers to a few tens of kilometers in diameter), created under the influence of mesorelief forms due to changes in incoming solar radiation, air temperature, precipitation, etc.

Thus, in deep mountain valleys (the upper and middle parts of the valleys of the Chernaya, Belbek, Kacha, Alma, Salgir, Biyuk-Karasu, etc. rivers) cold air accumulates, and less solar energy is received due to shading by neighboring ridges. The slopes of the ridges oriented to the south heat up more strongly, and those oriented to the north - vice versa. There are breezes in coastal areas. In cities there is more fog, the duration of sunshine is shorter, and the temperature is 1-2 C higher.

The climate of most of Crimea can be characterized as a temperate climate - soft steppe in the flat part, more humid, characteristic of deciduous forests in the mountains. The southern coast of Crimea is characterized by a sub-Mediterranean climate. There are two main factors that influence the climate of the peninsula: the Crimean mountains and the proximity of the sea. In winter it plays the role of a huge “hot water bottle”, and in summer it somewhat reduces the heat.

There are many intermediate options between these types of climates. For example, in the Foothills (Simferopol, Zuya, Belogorsk) the climate is transitional from steppe to mountain-forest - it can be called foothill forest-steppe.

In the lowland Crimea, the climate is steppe, moderate continental, dry: cool winter (average January temperature from - 3 to 0 C) and hot summer (average July temperature from +21 to +23 C) Precipitation - 350 - 450 mm/year, and Most of them fall in the summer in the form of showers.

There are differences between the climates of the coastal territories (Chernomorskoye, Evpatoria, Kerch) and the central part of the peninsula (Krasnogvardeyskoye, Dzhankoy, Pervomaiskoye, etc.) in the coastal part there is higher relative humidity, intensity of solar radiation, less cloudiness and amount of precipitation. This climate can be called coastal steppe.

In the foothills (Simferopol, Belogorsk), the amount of precipitation increases to 500-600 mm/year, summer temperatures decrease.

In the mountains, summer and winter temperatures decrease and the amount of precipitation increases. For every 100 m of altitude, the temperature decreases by an average of 0.5-0.6 o C, the amount of precipitation increases by 50-70 mm/year. Therefore, on the Yailas, the average monthly winter temperatures are up to - 4. - 5 o C, and the amount of precipitation is 1000-1500 mm/year.

The South Coast is of greatest interest in terms of climate. This is the only place in Ukraine with a sub-Mediterranean, in other words, almost Mediterranean climate. Winter here is mild, with positive temperatures.

The climate of Yalta is cooler compared to points located on the Mediterranean Sea. This is especially true in winter; frosts down to -15 o C sometimes occur in Yalta. Such low temperatures limit the possibility of growing subtropical crops.

There are several hundred varieties of local climates in Crimea.

The climate in the Salgir valley, say, differs from the climate on the cuesta ridges in that it has higher daytime temperatures and lower nighttime temperatures. Valley winds often blow here, bringing cool air from the mountains.

A specific climate is formed in the Baydar Valley. This part of the Chernaya River valley is basin-shaped, therefore, in calm weather, cold air flowing down from the slopes of the surrounding mountains accumulates in it. As a result, the absolute minimum air temperature in the valley is lower compared to the surrounding areas.

Local climates are also formed due to hair dryers, breezes, and mountain-valley winds. The influence of breezes is especially pronounced in Crimea. They occur in the summer and are associated with uneven heating of land and sea: during the day the wind blows from the sea to the land, and at night - vice versa. Breezes can be considered as microanalogs of the Asian monsoons, only there the continent (Asia) and the ocean (Pacific) interact, and the change in wind direction occurs in summer and winter. Thanks to the breezes on the coast, the summer midday and afternoon heat is softened. The location of Crimea within the territory with the maritime climate of the Eastern Mediterranean makes its climatic conditions quite comfortable. Even in Simferopol, located not on the coast, but in the central part of the peninsula, the climate is much more comfortable for humans compared to the same latitudes (45) of the Eastern Hemisphere (with colder winters and contrasting climate in seasons) and Western (where summers are relatively cooler ). Here are some climate “records” for the Crimean Peninsula over the past 150-200 years:

· The most heat in summer - the absolute maximum (+40.7 C) - was recorded in August 1930 in the village of Klepinino.

· The lowest temperature in winter - the absolute minimum (-36.8 C) - was recorded in January 1940 in the village of Nizhnegorsky.

· The coldest and snowiest winter was 1953-1954, when the temperature remained below - 10 C for almost 50 days.

· The warmest winter was 1965-1966, when there was no snow on the yayls at all, and in Simferopol the thaw lasted for almost three months.

· The maximum amount of precipitation - 1718 mm - was recorded in 1981 at Ai-Petri.

· The longest drought was in 1947, when even in the mountains there was no rain for almost 100 days.

· The maximum number of foggy days (not only in Crimea, but also in Ukraine) is observed on Ai-Petri (in 1970 - 215 days).

· The windiest point not only in Crimea, but also in Ukraine is Ai-Petri (in 1949, winds blew here at a speed of over 15 m/s for 125 days). The highest wind speed was also recorded on Ai-Petri - 50 m/s.

1.3 Soil and vegetation cover

Crimea is distinguished by a wide variety of soils and vegetation, which is directly dependent on the characteristics of the geological structure, diversity of parent rocks, relief and climate. A characteristic feature of the distribution of soil and vegetation cover in the mountainous Crimea is the existence of vertical zonality. Brown and partly brown forest soils are developed on the South Coast. Brown soils are common under dry sparse forests and shrubs and are formed on clayey shales of the Tauride series and red-colored products of limestone weathering; brown forest soils are typical for less dry places.

The vegetation of the South Coast is distinguished by its xerophytic character, rich in Mediterranean forms and many alien cultural forms. The most common formations are forests, bushes and thickets of dry-loving grasses and subshrubs. The forests are low-growing and are formed by fluffy oak, tree-like juniper, wild pistachio, Crimean pine, hornbeam, and strawberry. Shrub thickets, which are an analogue of the Eastern Mediterranean shibliak, consist of shrubby forms of fluffy oak, hornbeam, dwarf tree, mackerel, sumac, scraggly pear, dogwood, orelica, cistus, etc. Open, dry and rocky areas are covered with dry-loving grasses and subshrubs - Crimean analogue of the East Mediterranean frigana. The parks contain cypresses, cedars, spruces, pines, sequoias, fir trees, laurels, magnolias, palm trees, cork oaks, plane trees, and Lankaran acacias.

A characteristic element of the South Coast landscape are also vineyards, orchards and tobacco plantations.

Orographical and climatic differences in individual parts of the Main Ridge determine the diversity of their soil and vegetation cover. The western part of the ridge is characterized by brown mountain-forest soils, mountain-brown soils of dry forests and shrubs, and alluvial-meadow soils of river valleys and ravines. Due to the low-mountain relief and its great fragmentation, the vertical zonation of the soil and vegetation cover is poorly expressed here. The predominant forests consist of downy oak, tree-juniper, wild pistachio (keva tree) with an undergrowth of hornbeam, dogwood, blackthorn and blackthorn. Low-growing juniper forests grow on stony soils and rocky areas. Higher on the slopes grow taller mixed deciduous forests of beech, oak, hornbeam, and ash. Lots of wild grapes and ivy. Valleys and depressions are characterized by grassy meadow-steppe vegetation. To a greater extent, the basins are developed for fields, vineyards, orchards, and tobacco plantations.

The slopes of the middle part of the Main Ridge are occupied by brown mountain forest soils and their podzolized varieties. The vertical vegetation zone is quite well defined here.

The lower part of the northern slope of the Main Ridge is occupied by low-trunk oak coppice forest and is very thinned out. The forest is formed mainly by downy and sessile oak and partly by pedunculate oak. Dogwood and hornbeam are in the undergrowth. Occasionally there are small patches of pine, oak-pine and juniper forest. The open areas of the slope are occupied by forest and partly steppe herbaceous vegetation that has already penetrated here (siler, kupena, bluegrass, woodruff, feather grass, fescue, wheatgrass, etc.). Higher up the slope (up to 600 m) a tall oak forest grows with an admixture of ash, field maple, aspen, and large-fruited rowan. In the undergrowth are hornbeam, dogwood, hazel, buckthorn, hawthorn, and mackerel. Even higher (from 600 to 1000 m) a tall beech forest with an admixture of hornbeam dominates, there are rare areas of Crimean pine, and on the slopes of the southern exposure there are groves of tree-like juniper and isolated yews. At altitudes above 1000 m there is already a low-growing beech forest with rare areas of Scots pine.

On the southern slope of the Main Ridge, above the dry forests and shrubs of the Southern Birch, at an altitude of 400 to 800-1,000 m, there is a forest of Crimean pine. Fluffy oak and tree-like and shrubby juniper are found as admixtures. To the east of Gurzuf, the distribution of the Crimean pine is already of an island nature, and to the east of Alushta only isolated specimens of this tree are found. Pine forests are replaced here by forests of downy oak, hornbeam, tree juniper, wild pistachio and dogwood. Above 1000 m there is a forest of beech, Scots pine and partly Crimean pine, oak, maple, linden, and hornbeam.

Yailas are, as a rule, treeless and covered with grassy meadow-steppe vegetation on mountain chernozems and mountain-meadow chernozem-like soils. The eastern part of the Main Ridge is characterized by low-trunked open forests of oak, beech, ash, hornbeam and shrubby thickets of dogwood, hawthorn, dwarf tree, and mackerel on brown mountain forest soils and steppe varieties of mountain brown soils.

The foothills are occupied by forest-steppe with a mosaic alternation of treeless (steppe) and forest areas. The soils are carbonate chernozems, crushed soddy-carbonate and brown soils. Treeless areas are characterized by grassy grass and forb vegetation: feather grass, fescue, wheatgrass, wheatgrass, saffron, Adonis or spring adonis, sage, peon, yarrow, immortelle, etc. for the most part plowed and developed into fields, vineyards, tobacco plantations and plantations of essential oil plants. Orchards and vineyards are common in river valleys. Forest areas consist of low-growing trees, forest shrubs (downy oak, sessile and pedunculate oak, field maple, ash, elm, hazel and dogwood). The most common shrubs are mackerel, hawthorn, blackthorn, rose hip, buckthorn, etc.

In the central part of the Crimean plain and in the northeastern part of the Kerch Peninsula, heavy loamy and clayey southern chernozems are common. These soils were formed on loess-like rocks under sparse grass vegetation and contain little humus (3-4%). Due to the peculiarities of their mechanical composition, southern chernozems float during rain and become crusty when dry, however, despite this, they are still the best soils of the Crimean plain. With proper agricultural technology, southern chernozems can provide good yields of grain and industrial crops, and grapes. The southern part of the Crimean plain adjacent to the mountains and partly the northeastern region of the Kerch Peninsula are characterized by weakly humus carbonate chernozems.

The belt of southern chernozems to the north is gradually replaced by a belt of heavy loamy dark chestnut and chestnut solonetzic soils, formed under conditions of high standing saline groundwater on loess-like rocks. The humus content in these soils is only 2.5-3%. Chestnut-type soils are also characteristic of the southwestern region of the Kerch Peninsula, where they were formed on salt-bearing Maykop clays. If proper agricultural practices are followed, chestnut soils can provide fairly high yields of various crops.

On the low-lying coast of Sivash and Karkinitsky Bay, where groundwater lies very close to the surface and is highly saline, solonetzes and solonchaks are developed. Similar soils are also found in the southwestern region of the Kerch Peninsula. The natural vegetation cover of the Crimean plain was a typical steppe. In the grass stand, the main background consisted of turf grasses: various feathery feather grasses, feather grass (tyrsa), fescue (or steppe fescue), tonkonogo, steppe keleria (or kipets), wheatgrass. Forbs were represented by sage (drooping and Ethiopian), kermek (Tatar and Sarepta), yellow alfalfa, spring adonis, steppe katran, yarrow, etc. A characteristic element were plants of a short spring growing season - ephemerals (annual species of brome, hare and mouse barley and etc.) and ephemeroids (tulips, steppe irises, etc.). Significant areas were occupied by the so-called desert steppe on chestnut-type soils. Along with the predominant cereals (fescue, wheatgrass, tyrsa, etc.), Crimean wormwood was very widespread there as a result of intensive grazing. Ephemera and ephemeroids were also quite characteristic.

On the rocky and gravelly slopes of the ridges and hills of the Tapkhankutsky and Kerch peninsulas there is a petrophytic (rocky) steppe. Here, along with grasses (feather grass, fescue, wheatgrass, etc.), xerophytic subshrubs (wormwood, dubrovnik, thyme) are common. There are bush thickets of rose hips, hawthorn, thorns, etc.

On the saline soils of the coast of the Karkinitsky Bay, Sivash and the southwestern part of the Kerch Peninsula, solonchak vegetation (sarsazan, soleros, sweda) is widespread. On drier and less saline soils, cereals grow there (volosnets, beskilnitsa, beskilnitsa).

Currently, the Crimean steppe has lost its natural appearance. It is almost entirely plowed and occupied by fields of wheat, corn, various vegetables, as well as vineyards and orchards. Recently, rice has become increasingly widespread in Crimea. Characteristic element cultural landscape The plains of Crimea are protected by forest belts of white acacia, birch bark, ash maple, ash and apricot.

II. Environmental problems of Crimea

Crimea is characterized by great diversity natural conditions and landscapes that are associated with its geographical location and complex geological and geomorphological structure. The diversity of landscapes has been facilitated by long-term anthropogenic impact, which has led to both the degradation of many natural ones and the formation of completely new anthropogenic landscapes. Currently, natural, slightly transformed landscapes occupy only 2.5% of the territory of Crimea. These are mountain broad-leaved forests, mountain forest-steppe on yailas, salt marshes and halophytic meadows of the Sivash region and the Kerch Peninsula. Most of the territory of the peninsula (62%) is developed for constructive landscapes: arable lands, gardens, cities, roads, etc. The remaining territory (35.5%) is represented by derivative landscapes.

The main features of the modern flora and fauna in Crimea were formed approximately 5 thousand years ago. At this time, people moved from gathering and hunting to farming and animal husbandry. For many centuries, economic pressures did not lead to significant changes in landscapes. Until the 19th century, in the Plain Crimea, residents were engaged in cattle breeding, and in the mountainous part and on the southern coast they grew grapes, wheat, apples, and pears. But in the XIV - XVII centuries. and here cattle breeding developed greatly, which led to the deforestation of large areas and the expansion of pastures due to them. At the beginning of the 19th century. The forest area in Crimea was 361 thousand hectares, and in 1913 it was already 318 thousand hectares, in 1929 only 274 thousand hectares. Crimean forests suffered greatly during the Great Patriotic War - by 1946 their area was reduced to 210 thousand hectares. In recent decades, thanks to reforestation work, the area of ​​forested areas has increased and currently the total forest area of ​​Crimea is 338 thousand hectares.

Not only the Crimean forests were severely damaged, but also the yayls, which at the beginning of the century were places for grazing as livestock. local population, as well as cattle imported from the southern regions of Russia and even from Romania and Bulgaria.

In the Foothill and Plain Crimea, extensive cattle breeding gradually gave way to agriculture. Particularly great changes occurred after the abolition of serfdom. From 1865 to 1890 the population of Crimea doubled, and the cultivated area increased from 222 thousand hectares to 925 thousand hectares. IN Soviet time The expansion of arable land area continued and in 1995 it amounted to 1154 thousand hectares. Foothill steppe communities with a predominance of feather grass vegetation were destroyed on 50% of their area, and the degradation of steppe communities in the Plain Crimea became close to 100%.

A significant impact on the natural environment occurred with the commissioning of the North Crimean Canal. The area of ​​irrigated land in Crimea has reached approximately 20% of all cultivated land. However, due to the poor technical condition of the canal, about half of the water is lost, and this has caused an increase in groundwater levels, flooding of land, and salinization of the soil. Irrigation led to a qualitative change in landscapes: rice fields appeared, and the area of ​​gardens, vegetable and row crops increased. New settlements emerged and the population of agricultural areas grew.

Recreational loads on landscapes have increased, especially on the southern coast of Crimea. The number of vacationers increased like an avalanche: in 1928, 110 thousand vacationed in Crimea, in 1938, 270 thousand, in 1958 - 700 thousand, in 1970 - 6.5 million, in the 80s - up to 10 million people annually. In addition to the direct impact on nature (trampling of vegetation, soil compaction, cutting down forests for fires, forest fires, littering, etc.), the influx of vacationers required the construction of new sanatoriums and rest houses, roads, reservoirs, and aggravated the problem of water supply. All this has led to an increase in the volume of polluted wastewater and the degradation of some coastal marine and forest ecosystems.

Industry and transport developed intensively. The construction of major chemical production facilities in Crimea dates back to the 60-80s, some of which operate on imported raw materials. By the beginning of the 90s, industrial production reached its greatest volume, and emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere reached a maximum value of 565 thousand tons. last years Due to the fall in production volumes, the amount of emissions into the atmosphere decreased: in 1992. - 430 thousand tons, in 1993 - 295 thousand tons, in 1994 - 190 thousand tons, in 1995 - 150 thousand tons, in 1996 - 122.5 thousand tons.

Rivers, reservoirs and coastal waters of the Black and Azov Seas are polluted by industrial and domestic wastewater. Sewage treatment plants have insufficient capacity; as a result, in 1996, 230 million cubic meters were discharged into open water bodies. m of wastewater, of which 106 are polluted, 124 million cubic meters are normatively treated. m. More than 42 million cubic meters have accumulated on the territory of Crimea. m of solid waste.

In general, the pollution of the peninsula and adjacent waters is very high. The flat part of Crimea in terms of pollution levels (especially soils) is second only to the Krivoy Rog-Dnieper region, the southern parts of the Kherson and Zaporozhye regions and is approximately on the same level as the Donbass. Such significant pollution is associated with the use of large amounts of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture. Average air and soil pollution, as well as land disturbance in Crimea are lower than the average for Ukraine. Water pollution is approximately two times lower, but pesticide pollution is more than twice as high compared to Ukraine. The overall anthropogenic transformation in Crimea is inferior to the industrial Dnieper region and Donbass, but superior to other areas.

In the Mountainous Crimea, despite the bans, livestock grazing continues. Of great concern is grazing on the yailas, where a significant part of the peninsula’s river flow is formed. The karst formation and fracturing of the limestones that make up the Yaila plateaus contribute to the rapid infiltration of polluted surface waters and their entry into rivers and reservoirs.

Crimea is washed by the waters of two internal seas. Their uniqueness lies in their limited connection with the World Ocean, which means that their hydrological regime significantly depends on river flow and water exchange through the Bosphorus Strait. And although hydrogen sulfide contamination of the deep layers of the Black Sea determines the absence of organic life below 150 m, the coastal surface waters of the sea are characterized by high biological productivity. Until recently, the Sea of ​​Azov was one of the most productive seas of the World Ocean.

Modern natural conditions in the Azov-Black Sea basin developed approximately 4-6 thousand years ago. However, the presence of relict organisms and specific conditions of speciation determined a rather high - more than 10% - endemism of the fauna of the basin. It is home to more than 1,200 species of algae and higher plants, 2,100 invertebrate animals, 192 species of fish and 4 species of mammals.

Already at the beginning of the twentieth century, the influence of anthropogenic loads on the coastal ecosystems of Crimea was noted, mainly due to the intensive fishing of valuable fish species. The regulation of river flow in the 50s of our century had a very detrimental effect on the hydrological regime and structure of biological communities of the Azov Sea. The increase in the salinity of sea waters has led to the suppression of many species of bottom fauna - the main food of nutritionally valuable fish. Pollution of the river waters of the Danube and Dnieper determined, in turn, the eutrophication of the shallow northwestern part of the Black Sea and regular death in the summer. Anthropogenic pollution of the waters washing the Crimean peninsula has caused the suppression of brown algae and the increased development of green algae, the mass proliferation of ctenophores - a new “tenant” of the sea, the gluttony of which has led to a noticeable decrease in zooplankton, and finally, water blooms. In recent decades, off the southern coast of Crimea, the area of ​​the most abundant representative of brown algae, Cystoseira, has decreased by 40%.

However, against the backdrop of significant overall pollution of the Azov-Black Sea basin, the southern and West Coast Crimea found itself in a relatively favorable situation due to the peculiarities of water circulation. The greatest damage to the Crimean coastal waters is caused by local local sources of pollution, and the water areas of bays and bays with poor water exchange are the most affected. Less damage was caused to aquatic ecosystems near open shores.

Generally ecological problems Crimea is associated with a complex of socio-economic and natural resource reasons, which are reflected in the nature of environmental management.

Conclusion

The nature of Crimea is called a natural museum. There are few places in the world where diverse, comfortable and picturesque landscapes are combined in such an original way. They are largely due to the unique geographical location, geological structure, relief, and climate of the peninsula. The Crimean Mountains divide the peninsula into two unequal parts. The large one - the northern one - is located in the extreme south of the temperate zone, the southern one - the Crimean sub-Mediterranean - belongs to the northern edge of the subtropical zone.

The flora of Crimea is especially rich and interesting. Wild higher plants alone account for more than 65% of the flora of the entire European part of the Commonwealth countries. Along with this, about 1000 species of foreign plants are cultivated here. Almost the entire flora of Crimea is concentrated in its southern mountainous part. This is truly a museum richness of flora.

The climate of most of Crimea is a temperate climate: soft steppe - in the flat part; more humid, characteristic of deciduous forests - in the mountains. The southern coast of Crimea is characterized by a sub-Mediterranean climate of dry forests and bushes.

Crimea, especially its mountainous part, thanks to its comfortable climate, rich clean air, toned with phytoncides, sea salts, and the pleasant aroma of plants, also has great healing powers. The depths of the earth also contain healing mud and mineral waters.

The reserve fund accounts for more than 135 thousand hectares of the peninsula, which is 5.2% of its area. The reserve fund plays a significant role in preserving the creations of inanimate and living nature, and stabilizes the ecological situation on the peninsula.

Crimea is a unique region of Ukraine, where in a relatively small territory there are 152 objects of the natural reserve fund, including: 6 nature reserves, 30 reserves, 69 natural monuments, 2 botanical gardens, 1 dendrological park, 31 park-monuments of landscape art, 8 protected areas, 1 zoo.

More than 200 mineral deposits are known in Crimea. Iron ores (Kerch iron ore basin), salts of Sivash and coastal lakes (Staroye, Krasnoe, etc.), natural gas (Black Sea deposits), fluxing limestones (Balaklavskoe, Kerch deposits, etc.), cement marls (Bakhchisaray), are of national importance. pottery and bleaching clays (foothills). For medicinal and recreational purposes, therapeutic mud and mineral springs are used (Saki, Evpatoria, Feodosia, etc.), sand and pebble beaches (western and South coast, Azov region). Many steppes, unfortunately, are plowed under fields of wheat, corn, rice paddies, vegetable plantations, vineyards and orchards.

Problems of regional development:

1. Insufficiently rational use of natural conditions and resources;

2. Poor water supply to the Crimean Peninsula;

3. Contradictions in the location and development of heavy industry enterprises, in the formation of a large port economy, on the one hand, and the use recreational resources- with another;

4. Pollution in the west of Crimea leads to weakening medicinal properties Saki mud;

5. Threatening ecological state of the Black and Azov seas and the lake-bay of Sivash;

6. Mining of pebbles and limestone on beaches has a negative impact on natural features resorts of Crimea;

7. Naval bases and air forces create a lot of noise pollution;

8. Implementation of the program for the protection of cultural monuments of the Crimean Peninsula.

Crimea today is a specific region where it is concentrated great amount rare species of animals and plants, unique climatic zones and ecological reserves. If sharp and radical measures are not taken to stabilize the environmental situation, then we will simply lose this unique region. The government of both Ukraine and Crimea should pay more attention to this issue, tightening environmental policies and applying more severe sanctions to violators of environmental legislation.

Bibliography

1. Blagovolin N.S. Some questions of the history of the development of the mountainous Crimea relief. In the book. "The structure of the Black Sea depression." Ed. "Science", 1966

2. Velichko B.P. Mudflows in Crimea and methods of combating them. Sat. "Combating mountain soil erosion and mudflows", Tashkent, 1962.

3. Wulf E.V. The Kerch Peninsula and its vegetation in connection with the question of the origin of the flora of Crimea. Zap. Crimea. Society of Natural Sciences, vol. XI, 1929.

4. “Geography of Crimea” P.D. Podgorodetsky, V.B. Kudryavtseva, Simferopol, 1995.

5. Gubanov I.G., Podgorodetsky P.D. The wealth of subsoil // Nature of Crimea. - Simferopol: Crimea 1996.

6. Davitishvili L.Sh. Towards knowledge of the fauna of the Chaudin horizon. From. Ass. Research Institute of Physics and Mathematics of the I Moscow State University, vol. 11, issue 2a, 1930.

7. Dobrynin B.F. Landscapes of the mountainous Crimea "Crimea", No. 1/5, 1929.

8. Ena V.G. Protected landscapes of Crimea, - Simferopol "Tavria" - 1989.

9. Ivanov B.N., Goldin B.M., Oliferov A.N. Selenium-bearing areas and their physical and geographical characteristics. In the book. "Settled in the USSR and measures to combat them." Ed. "Science", 1964.

10. Muratov M.V., Nikolaev N.I. River terraces of the mountainous Crimea. BMOIP, dept. geol. No. 1, 1939

11. Podgorodetsky P.D. Crimea: Nature: Reference. ed. - Simferopol: Tavria Publishing House, 1988.

12. Nature of Crimea and its protection / Ed. P.V. Sakanevich. - Simferopol: Tavria Publishing House, 1997.

13. Sukhorukov V. Do you know Crimea, - Simferopol "Tavria" - 1983.

14. “Physical geography of Ukraine” Zastavny F.D. "Blitz" - 2004

15. "Ecology of Crimea", N.V. Bagrov, V.A. Bokova - Krymuchpedgiz, 2003

Application

Fig.1. Overview map Crimea

Fig.2. Mount Demerdzhi

Columnar weathering patterns of Upper Jurassic conglomerates

Fig.3. the south coast of Crimea

Erosion Landforms in Tauride Shales,

at the village Vesele (near Sudak).

Fig.4. North-eastern shore of the lake. Donuzlav

Fig.5. Dzhangul landslide coast. Tapxankutsky Peninsula

Fig.6. Landslide terraces of the Dzhangul coast.

Tarkhankut Peninsula

Fig.7. The surface of a mud hill with a crater and a fresh mud flow

Table 1. Duration of sunshine, hours

Table 2.

Table 3. Total solar radiation, MJ/m2

Table 4.

Observation point	July	August	September	October	November	December	Year
Klepinino	733	654	494	310	139	96	4 994
Black Sea	800	691	511	318	155	101	5 317
Kerch	779	679	499	310	151	96	5 095
Evpatoria	788	687	524	327	159	105	5 247
Simferopol	754	652	515	331	168	117	5 186
Feodosia	767	662	511	315	155	101	5 059
Sevastopol	779	683	520	325	168	122	5 253
Yalta	763	675	511	327	168	122	5 134
Ai-Petri	721	633	486	310	180	126	5 054

Table 5. Air temperature, evaporation (E) and volatility (Eo)

Observation point	Air temperature, C			Evaporation,	Volatility,	Attitude,
	January	July	year	year	year	year
Armyansk	-2,9	23,2	10,0	338	958	0,35
Klepinino	-2,0	22,8	9,9	460	931	0,49
Black Sea	-0,1	22,1	10,8	314	771	0,41
Nizhnegorsky	-1,6	22,8	10,4	460	911	0,50
Kerch	-1,0	23,3	10,6	429	841	0,51
Evpatoria	-0,3	23,0	11,0	367	872	0,42
Belogorsk	-1,4	21,4	9,8	416	928	0,45
Simferopol	-1,0	21,8	10,2	457	958	0,48
Feodosia	-0,6	23,8	11,7	372	998	0,37
Alushta	3,0	23,3	12,3	331	1 023	0,32
Sevastopol	2,7	22,4	12,0	343	940	0,36
Yalta (port)	4,0	23,7	13,0	366	1 059	0,35
Ai-Petri	-3,6	15,6	5,7	488	755	0,65
Syrach	4,5	23,6	13,3	371	1 121	0,33

Table 6. Annual sums of temperatures above 10C

Observation point	Sum of temperatures	Observation point	Sum of temperatures
Yishun	3 468	Alushta	3 655
Dzhankoy	3 519	Crimean
Klepino	3 441	Reserve	2 500
Kerch	3 650	Sevastopol	3 580
Evpatoria	3 674	Postal	3 160
Belogorsk	3 245	Dove	3 040
Simferopol	3 245	Nikitsky
Old Crimea	3 065	Botanical Garden	3 885
Feodosia	3 675	Yalta (port)	3 850
Karadag	3 635	Ai-Petri	1 805
Karabi-yayla	2 060	Miskhor	4 195
Zander	3 540	Simeiz	4 060
Megan	3 710	Sarych	3 935

Table 7. Average long-term amounts of atmospheric precipitation, mm

Observation point	November-March	April-October	year	Observation point	November-March	April-October	year
Armyansk	129	212	341	Alushta	225	202	427
Dzhankoy	147	271	418	Sevastopol	165	184	349
Klepino	165	301	466	Postal	209	273	482
Black Sea	133	183	316	Dove	261	307	568
Nizhnegorsky	164	300	464	Gurzuf	281	233	514
Kerch	161	251	412	Nikitsky
Evpatoria	156	197	353	Botanich. garden	298	237	535
Belogorsk	147	276	423	Balaclava	201	219	420
Simferopol	196	305	501	Yalta (port)	313	247	560
Old Crimea	202	312	514	Ai-Petri	648	404	1 052
Feodosia	151	225	376	Orlinoe	317	265	582
Karadag	146	211	357	Miskhor	273	236	509
Karabi-yayla	214	381	595	Simeiz	226	206	432
Zander	129	189	318	Sarych	184	188	372
Megan	115	157	272