Micronesia. Economic and geographical location. Micronesia Social structure of the population of the Mariana Islands

- a state on 607 islands in the western part Pacific Ocean. Former name - Caroline Islands.

The name of the country comes from the ancient Greek "mikros" and "nesos", meaning "small" and "island", meaning "micro-island".

Official name: Federated States Micronesia (FSM)

Capital - Palikir.

Square - 702 km2.

Population - 130 thousand people

Administrative division - The state is divided into 4 states: Truk, Kostrae, Ponape, Yap.

Form of government - Republic.

Head of State - The president.

Official language - English (official and inter-ethnic communication), 8 local languages: Japanese, Woleai, Ulithi and Sonsorol, Caroline, Truk, Kosrae, Nukuoro and Kapingamarangi.

Religion - 50% are Catholics, 47% are Protestants, 3% are others..

Ethnic composition - 41% - Chuukeans, 26% - Pohnpeians, 7 other ethnic groups - 33%..

Currency - US dollar = 100 cents.

Internet domain : .fm

Mains voltage : ~120 V, 60 Hz

Country dialing code: +691

Description of the country

Micronesia means “small islands”, and this absolutely accurately reflects the essence of this country. Although the islands are firmly tied to the economic and political interests of the United States, Micronesia stubbornly follows its traditional path - a country where people sport loincloths and stone coins are still used as a means of payment. Micronesians are very proud of their past, especially since they have every right to be - their ancestors crossed the Pacific Ocean in fragile canoes long before Europeans entered these waters.

The islands have some of the world's best diving, snorkeling and surfing conditions and are seen as potential international center For beach holiday And aquatic species sports. The waters around the islands are filled with many forms of spectacular marine life. Eat a large number of species of hard and soft corals, anemones, sponges, fish, dolphins and shellfish, including the giant clam Tridacna. Large pods of whales pass through these waters every year. Several species of sea turtle lay eggs on these shores, and islanders are allowed to use both turtle meat and eggs for food. The islands are also home to more than 200 species of seabirds.

Climate

The climate of Micronesia is equatorial, more humid in the east of the archipelago, where the cyclone zone passes. Conventionally, two seasons are distinguished: dry (January - March) and wet (April - December). From November to December, northeast trade winds predominate; the rest of the year, southwest monsoon winds blow, bringing heavy rainfall. On Pohnpei the average is 300 rainy days per year. Average annual precipitation is 3000–4000 mm. Seasonal fluctuations in air temperature are insignificant, average monthly temperatures are 24–30° C. The length of daylight hours is the same throughout the year. The part of the Pacific Ocean where Micronesia is located is an area where typhoons occur (on average there are up to 25 typhoons per year). Typhoon season is from August to December.

Geography

Federated States of Micronesia - island country in western Oceania and the Pacific Ocean. It is bordered in the west by the Palau Islands, in the north by the Mariana Islands, and in the east by the Marshall Islands. Occupies most of the Caroline Islands (with the exception of Palau). Outside the main island arc there are numerous atolls that make up the country. Micronesia consists of 607 islands, the largest of which are Pohnpei (342 sq. km), Kosrae (Kusaiye, 111 sq. km), Chuuk (126 sq. km), Yap (118 sq. km). total area islands - 720.6 sq. km, and the water area is 2.6 million square meters. km.

The most mountainous are about. Pohnpei (with the highest point - Mount Ngineni, 779 m), and about. Kosrae (Mount Finkol, 619 m). On about. Yap is dominated by rounded hills; The islands of Kosrae, Chuuk and Pohnpei are of volcanic origin. Most of the islands are low atolls on coral reefs. The most extensive marine lagoon is Chuuk (surrounded by 80 small islands).

Flora and fauna

Volcanic and coral islands differ in the nature of their vegetation. On the coast of the volcanic islands there are mangroves, coconut palms, and bamboo. The coral islands are dominated by coconut palms.

The fauna is represented by bats, rats, crocodiles, snakes, and lizards. The world of birds is diverse. Yap, unlike other “high” islands, is of non-volcanic origin, it is covered with hills and meadows. The waters of coral reefs and lagoons are rich in fish and sea animals.

Banks and currency

United States dollar (USD), equal to 100 cents. Banknotes in circulation are in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 dollars. And also coins: penny (1 cent), nickel (5 cents), dime (10 cents), quarter (25 cents), half dollar (50 cents) and 1 dollar. The dollar is the official currency of the country, so there is no point in importing anything else. American dollar travel checks are accepted almost everywhere, and most large hotels, restaurants and shops accept them as cash. There are no commercial banks on either Truk (Chuuk) or Kosrae, so make sure you have enough cash before heading to these islands. Credit cards are widely accepted on Pohnpei and are increasingly used in Truk and Yap.

Micronesia (which means “small islands” in Greek) includes the islands: 1) Marianas; 2) Palau and Yap; 3) Caroline: 4) Marshall, consisting of two parallel chains: western - Ralik and eastern - Ratak; 5) Gilbert.

Geographical environment

In Micronesia, you can count over one and a half thousand islands, if each strip of land or rock protruding above the water is considered a separate island. There are more than 800 islands in the Marshall group, and more than 700 islands in the Caroline group. But in fact, in all of Micronesia there are only about 100 islands that really deserve this name; Of these, about 80 are inhabited.

In terms of surface size, the Mariana Islands (15 islands, 1140 km 2) are in first place, followed by the Caroline Islands (about 40 islands proper, 1000 km 2), Palau (about 10 islands proper, 450 km 2), Gilberta (16 islands, 428 km 2), Marshall Islands (about 30 islands proper, 405 km 2). The total land area of all the islands of Micronesia is less than 3.5 thousand km 2.

How insignificant these areas of land can be judged by the following figurative remark of the Russian navigator F. P. Litke about the Caroline Islands: “If, excluding the high Yualan, Pyinipet and Rug, we could unite together, in a circle, all the other islands and put them on a spitz Peter and Paul Fortress, then they would barely cover the whole of St. Petersburg with its country houses” 1.

But these small pieces of land are scattered over a vast area, over 5200 km from north to south and 2700 km from west to east. Despite the insignificant total area of these islands, they are considered a separate part of Oceania.

The islands of Micronesia are divided according to their origin and structure into coral and volcanic. All the Gilbert and Marshall islands are coral, and all the Marianas are volcanic. In the Caroline and Palau groups, coral islands have a small area, volcanic ones have a large area. The islands of Yualan (Ualan, or Kusaye), Pyinipet (Ponape) and Rug (Truk), which Litke wrote about in the above quote, are volcanic islands. All other islands of the Caroline group, if you do not include Palau and Yap, are coral.

Darwin wrote about the coral islands: “The immensity of the ocean and the fury of the surf form a sharp contrast with the low land and the smooth vast expanse of green water within the lagoon - a contrast which is difficult to imagine to anyone who has not seen it with his own eyes.” 1

Volcanic islands rise steeply from the ocean and often reach great heights. On Ponape Island there are peaks up to 900 m, on Kusaye up to 600 m.

Truk Island is a whole group of islands. Inside the reef-surrounded lagoon, about 60 km in diameter, there are 16 volcanic islands, with a total area of about 70 km 2 (from 0.5 to 12 km 2). All islands are inhabited.

Coral islands are poor in vegetation, while volcanic islands are rich. Thus, the islands of Ponape, Kusaye and Truk are covered with dense mountain forests. The climate in Micronesia is tropical, maritime, with an almost constant annual temperature of about +26°.

General information about Micronesians

The indigenous people of Micronesia, Micronesians, are linguistically part of the large group of Malayo-Polynesian Napops.

The long independent history of Micronesian population groups has led to the emergence of specific differences in their culture. In addition to features common throughout Micronesia, many features varied among different islands.

In this regard, there is a clear distinction between, on the one hand, western Micronesia (Mariana Islands, Palau, Yap), and on the other, eastern Micronesia (Marshall and Gilbert Islands). In eastern Micronesia there are no volcanic islands and therefore no stone, so tools were made from shells, while in western Micronesia stone tools were widespread. Further, Polynesian elements predominated in the culture of eastern Micronesia, while Indonesian elements predominated in western Micronesia. The Caroline Islands constituted an intermediate group in this respect. These differences arose a long time ago and were based on purely local conditions.

There are also traces of later, specifically Indonesian influence: the cultivation of rice in the Mariana Islands; pottery, which was known only on the islands of Palau and Yap; a arrow-throwing tube found only in Palau. Here again the difference between western and eastern Micronesia is evident - in the latter there are not and were not traces of late Indonesian influence.

Finally, later history developed differently in different places in Micronesia. Western Micronesia was the first target of European colonization, and its population suffered the most.

The inhabitants of the Mariana Islands, the Chamorros, waged a long and persistent struggle against the Spanish colonialists (XVII century) and all of them - there were about 50 thousand of them - were exterminated. The population of the Palau Islands decreased from 50 thousand to 6 thousand. Eastern Micronesia became the object of colonial conquests later. The population here suffered less, but its growth almost stopped. For example, the population of the Marshall Islands now, as in late XIX century, is about 10 thousand.

The fate of the traditional, distinctive culture of the islanders of western and eastern Micronesia is also different.

The Chamorro culture has been completely destroyed. It could not have been otherwise, since the former population was no longer left. Modern Chamorros occurred as a result of the mixing of settlers from other islands of Micronesia with the descendants of the Spaniards, Filipinos, Japanese, etc. An idea of the purebred Chamorros and their external culture can only be obtained from the works of early writers and travelers (Pigafetta - 1521, Gobien - 1700 g., partly Kotzebue - 1817, Freycinet - 1819).

The modern population of the Palau Islands also contains a noticeable admixture of Japanese, Chinese and European blood. There have been fundamental changes in culture. However, Palauans rightly believe that their culture is the result of their own efforts and not of external influences. They are convinced, notes one author, that “the culture of Palau can withstand any disaster... Moreover, when they look back at their history, it seems clear to them that their way of life has survived. People now live completely differently than people of past generations, but they have no doubt that the basis of their life is preserved" 1 .

The culture of the inhabitants of eastern Micronesia continues to maintain its originality to an even greater extent. In it, as foreign authors put it, “the native basis has been preserved.”

Now there are about 110 thousand Micronesians. The population is distributed among groups of islands as follows: on the Mariana Islands - 28 thousand, on Palau - 6 thousand, on the island of Yap - 3 thousand, on the Caroline Islands - 30 thousand, on the Marshall Islands - 10 thousand, on the island of Gilbert's wah - 32 thousand.

On individual larger islands, this population (in the groups of Marshall, Caroline, Mariana and Palau islands) is distributed as follows: Guam - 23 thousand, Truk - 10.5 thousand, Ponape - 5.5 thousand, Saipan - 3 .5 thousand, Yaluit - 2 thousand, Kusaye - 1.2 thousand, Mayuro - 1.1 thousand. The rest of the population of these four groups of islands lives on 62 islands, often very distant from one another. About half the islands have a population of less than 250 people each.

On big islands the population is divided into separate village communities. On the Palau Islands, for example, there are 80 separate villages, on the Yap Island - about 100 villages (in the past there were 235 villages, but over the past 50 years the population has greatly decreased). On small islands, the entire population usually forms one community.

Mariana Islands

The indigenous people of the Mariana Islands received the name Chamorro from the local word Chamori (chief). In the 1660s, when Spanish soldiers and Jesuit missionaries arrived in the Mariana Islands, there were up to 100,000 Chamorros. But then followed 30 years of bloody “conquest” of the Cha Morro by the Spaniards. During this time, more than 40 thousand people were exterminated. Two destructive hurricanes (1671 and 1693) and epidemics brought the number of purebred Chamorros to several thousand. To replace the exterminated indigenous people, the Spaniards imported colonists from their other possessions - from the Philippines, from America. The descendants of former tribes also disappeared among them.

By the end of the 18th century. There were no longer any purebred Chamorros. O. E. Kotzebue, who visited the Mariana Islands in 1817, wrote: “If I could return to the time when Magellan discovered these islands, then “Rurik” would have long ago been surrounded by many boats of cheerful islanders, but now this is no longer there was no... since that time the entire generation of natural inhabitants of the Ladron (i.e. Mariana) Islands has been exterminated. We looked around in vain to see if we would meet a boat, in vain we looked around to see if we would see a man on the shore; it even seemed to us that we were at desert island. The sight of this beautiful land,” continued Kotzebue, “gave rise to sad feelings in me: in former times, these fertile valleys served as an abode for people who spent their days in peace and happiness; now there were only lovely palm forests standing here and overshadowing the graves of the former inhabitants” 1 .

On the island of Guam, Kotzebue wrote: “Of the indigenous inhabitants of the area, there is only one couple on the entire island; with the death of these two people, the generation of ancient Ladrones will fade away” 2.

All the early writers and travelers describe the Chamorros as being tall and athletic, with some tendency to be overweight. “They maintained excellent health until old age,” said the Spanish Jesuit Sanvitores, “and usually lived until they were ninety and a hundred years old” 3 . Travelers talk a lot about the great physical strength of Chamorro men. They also note good nature in everyday life, hospitality and other positive traits of their character.

They were a people with a developed culture. The Chamorros cultivated rice and made pottery; exchanges between the inhabitants of the various islands of the Mariana group were widely developed; exchange also existed between the populations of the Mariana and Caroline Islands. People from Yap Island came to Guam to buy stone. The unit of exchange in the Mariana Islands was shell products.

The main occupation of the population of the Mariana Islands was agriculture. The tools for cultivating the soil were a stick with a pointed end (tanum) and a stone hoe (akoa). Rice was harvested with knives made from sharp shells. Rice was the main source of food for the Chamorros. Early travelers say that the Chamorros also ate yams, bananas, coconuts, breadfruit, and sugar cane; The food was fish, meat of turtles, bats, and various birds.

According to Pigafetta, the division of labor between men and women was as follows: “Women do not do field work, but spend time at home weaving mats, baskets and making other household items from palm leaves” 1 . They looked after the children, and also collected edible roots and leaves in the forest, caught fish on the reefs with hand nets, made pottery, coconut oil, and cooked food. Men worked in the fields, caught fish with nets, built houses and boats; They carried out all the handicraft work on wood and stone.

The Chamorros did not have bows and arrows. There were also no swords and shields. The main weapon was a spear with a tip made of human bone. A sling was used. Wars, as far as we know, were rare and not bloody.

The Chamorros went to sea on double boats with triangular sails.

There was almost no clothing: in most cases they were limited to fiber belts. During rain and on holidays, clothes made from pandanus leaves and similar helmets were used, but neither their cut nor type is known, since no samples have survived. Jewelry made from tortoise pendants and shells, common throughout western Micronesia, was used. There was no tattoo, unlike Polyneia. Teeth, as is typical throughout western Micronesia, were painted black.

The Chamorros lived in villages (songsopg) and hamlets near their fields. According to the missionary Sanvitores (1668), there were 50-150 houses and huts in coastal villages on Guam, and 6-20 in inland villages. There were about 180 villages in Guam. At the end of the 17th century. The main village in the entire group of Mariana Islands was the village of Agana (“Agadna” in Kotzebue) on the northwestern coast of Guam. People of the highest social rank lived here. They lived in 53 large houses, standing on pillars or on masonry stilts. The village also had about 150 small leaf huts where the rest of the population lived.

Approximately the same situation existed throughout the archipelago: the common people lived in huts made of leaves, and the nobles built houses on pillars or on masonry stilts. Such pillars are still preserved on some islands, but, unfortunately, they have not yet been studied archaeologically.

One of the authors, who saw similar pillars on the island of Tinian, describes them as follows: they resemble truncated pyramids, the base of which is unequal in size. Their height is about 4 m, and the largest width of the base is 1 m. The column ends at the top with a massive hemisphere, 2 m in diameter. The columns are made of a mixture of sand and lime, so hardened that at first glance they can be considered a mass of stone. Each column is monolithic, the hemisphere is held together with the same cement. The columns stand in two rows, six columns in each, and so symmetrically that they form a street. Their strength is amazing. None of them fell, cracked, or crumbled. Only two of them had cracked hemispheres. All travelers who visited the Mariana Islands noted these archaeological sites.

Such structures are very unique and have no parallels outside Micronesia. Apparently, these are the remains of a kind of pile buildings, but the piles are stone, the result of Micronesians adapting to life on coral islands, where it is easier to make a stone column than to find suitable wood.

Social structure of the population of the Mariana Islands

The entire Chamorro population was divided into three social layers: Matu a - the highest layer, Achaot - the middle layer, Mangatchang - the lower layer.

Unfortunately, data on these social groups and the relationships between them is extremely scarce. The Matua had control of production and exchange in all the islands of the group. From among them came warriors, sailors, fishermen, boat builders, and traders. As for the Achaot, all that is known about them is that they helped the Matua in all matters. One of the authors calls the Achaot the youngest sons of the Matua.

The Mangatchang are the "common people" excluded from participation in upper class social life through various restrictions and taboos. Marriage between Mangatchang and Matua was prohibited. Mangatchang had no right to be a warrior, navigator, boat builder, or merchant. For him, fishing was limited to spear fishing. The main occupation of the Mangatchang was farming. Mangatchang could not eat or drink in the houses of the Matuas, and he was forbidden even to approach their houses. If he needed to ask the Matua anything, he had to speak from a long distance. When meeting a Matua, he had to bow deeply.

Each island was divided into districts that included one or more villages. At the head of the region was a chief (magalahe) with his family (wife, younger brothers, descendants). These were Matua and Achaot. The rest of the population of the area belonged to the Mangatchang stratum. It must be assumed that the magalahe controlled all the lands of the region and fishing grounds.

Unfortunately, the economic structure of the Chamorros remained completely unknown. There is no information about the basis that created these social orders. Apparently, the land had already become the private property of the nobles: sources speak of their “family estates.” It can be assumed that Chamorro society was on the verge of a transition from a primitive communal system to a class one.

But along with the emerging class system, the tribal system also continued to exist. The Chamorros were united into clans, membership of which was determined by the mother's side. It is possible that the clan still retained signs of exogamy. During all significant work, members of the clan gathered together and helped each other.

It is also known that in the Mariana Islands there was a society of single youth called ulitao, or uritao. Its members lived in separate bachelor houses and, as one of the old authors puts it, “indulged in Epicureanism.” Obviously here we're talking about about the age class of young men; they lived in a men's house that served as a club.

A number of features indicate the high position of women.

One of the old authors wrote that “women did not have royal rights, but in councils and courts they exercised such strong influence that the government of the court was in their hands, and not in the hands of men. In the house, their dominion was unlimited.”

Typical are the women's meetings mentioned by Gobien, to which men were not allowed. The women came there in their best clothes and performed various songs and dances, the details of which Gobien was unable to establish.

The complete freedom of girls before marriage is celebrated. Girls were allowed to visit the homes of single youth. During matchmaking, the mother acted as matchmaker. Marriage was practiced by working off.

It is difficult to establish from conflicting information whether the marriage was patrilocal or matrilocal. In any case, the presence of marriage by working out indicates the remnants of matrilocality.

The catch from fishing was given to the wife, who distributed it among relatives.

Marriage relationships are curious. According to Gobien and later authors, if his wife was unfaithful, the husband expelled her from the house, but did not have the right to punish her. The only thing he could do was challenge his opponent to a duel. On the contrary, if the husband violated marital fidelity, the wife punished him cruelly. One of the early observers describes such a custom as follows: the wife, having learned that her husband has unpleasant connections for her, immediately conveys this news to all the women of the village, who, wearing men's helmets, gather at the appointed place with darts in their hands. In such warlike attire, in battle formation, they approach the house of the culprit, devastate his fields, pick fruit from the trees, and attack the very home. If the husband did not hide or did not leave the house in advance, they attack him and chase him until they drive him out into the street. It also happened: a woman left her home and notified relatives that she could not live with her husband; then the relatives came to the house of the culprit, broke, smashed and carried away everything that came to hand, and the owner was happy if the avengers limited themselves to this and did not destroy his home.

Upon the death of the husband, all property passed to his wife. After the death of a woman, her relatives took the property. If a mother died, then her relatives, obviously from her family, took upon themselves the feeding and raising of children, especially infants.

In general, between people of the same kind and even of the same generation, there was a constant and indispensable obligation to help each other. Help was provided in case of childbirth, marriage, burial, building a house or boat, and cultivating fields. If a woman needed a boat and similar items belonging to any of her relatives, then she would bring him a circle of tortoiseshell shield and say: “I give you such and such a thing, take it instead of such and such a thing that I need.” It was impossible to refuse.

Talking about this custom, Gobien tried to emphasize the high importance and privileges that women enjoyed. For a tortoiseshell circle, essentially a symbolic gift, a woman could receive from her relatives any thing she needed.

All these data, despite their fragmentary nature, show that there were characteristic features of a matriarchal clan structure.

Chamorro religious beliefs consisted primarily of the cult of the dead (anita) and ancestors. Their skulls were used by sorcerers for magical purposes.

The Chamorro year was divided into 13 lunar months. At sea they navigated by the stars. There were healers, or rather healers, with a very developed specialization in the treatment of dislocations and fractures and other diseases. The use of certain medicinal herbs was known.

Finally, the Chamorros had developed folklore and music, but examples have not reached us. Of the musical instruments, only two types of flutes are known, of which one is a nasal one, i.e., the Polynesian type.

This entire unique and in its own way rich culture has now completely disappeared. The life of the modern population of the Mariana Islands is completely subordinated to capitalist orders; there is little originality in it. The old culture gave way to a new, very variegated one, formed from a variety of elements brought by many ethnic groups: Spaniards, Mexicans, Japanese, Filipinos, who brought with them crafts and arts, new clothes and entertainment (cockfighting), new religions (Catholic Christianity confessions, Buddhism). All this is combined with the few remnants of the original Chamorro culture.

Before World War II, Chamorros lived in villages and small towns near the coast. During the war, all cities were destroyed, including the capital of Guam - the city of Agana.

Micronesia

Micronesia (Greek: Small Island) includes the Volcano, Bonin, Mariana, Caroline, Marshall, Gilbert, Ellis archipelagos and the islands of Nauru and Ocean. As the name suggests, these islands are all small; the largest of them, Guam (Mariana Islands), has an area of 583 km2. The Western archipelagos of Micronesia from Volcano to the Western Caroline Islands are located in the belt of geosynclinal structures of the Pacific Ocean floor and are the peaks of volcanoes rising from a folded underwater ridge. The topography of the ocean floor in western Micronesia is extremely dissected. It is here, along the eastern edge of the Mariana island arc, that one of the deepest Mariana Trenches in the world lies (greatest depth 11,034 m). The tectonic activity of the earth's crust is very pronounced. There are frequent and strong earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The islands have a mountainous terrain (height from 400 to 1000 m), framed by abrasion terraces and coral reefs. Some of them, composed only of limestone, have a very heavily karstified and rugged surface. The islands of eastern Micronesia are coral. They crown the volcanic peaks of the platform floor of the Pacific Ocean and rarely rise above the water by more than 1.5-2.5 m. Many of them have the shape of typical atolls. The islands lie in latitudes from equatorial to subtropical, but under the influence of the warm Kuro-Sivo current the climate northern islands just as hot and humid as the southern ones. The greatest amount of precipitation (from 1500 mm to 2000 mm) falls on the eastern slopes of the mountainous islands, windward of the northeast trade winds. In their natural state, the slopes were covered with thick, wet evergreens. rainforests from areca palms (Areca catechu), pandanus (Pandanus spp.), breadfruit (Artocarpus spp.), Polynesian ironwood (Casuarina equisetifolla). These forests have not only shrunk in area, but have also been altered by the cutting down of valuable species. The leeward slopes of the islands are occupied by grass savannas, most likely secondary. The atolls of eastern Micronesia are dominated by coconut palms, and mangroves line the inland lagoons.

Polynesia

Polynesia (Greek: Multi-island) unites islands lying generally east of the 180th meridian, between 30° N. w. and 30° S. sh.: Hawaiian, atoll and reef Islands of the Line (Sporades), coral archipelagos of Phoenix and Tokelau, volcanic archipelago of Samoa with active volcanoes, a two-row chain of volcanic (western row) and coral (eastern row) islands of Tonga, Cook Islands, Tubuai, Societies with volcanic island Tahiti, the 76 atolls of the Tuamotu, or Russians, the Marquesas and, finally, the secluded Easter Island, with which the myth of the Pacific Atlantis is associated. The islands are the tops of basaltic volcanoes, mostly beheaded by weathering and abrasion, completely or partially covered by reef limestones. Coral islands are a product of the ocean, madrepore corals and calcareous algae. Atolls are shaped like a ring of low reefs ranging from 2 to 150 km across. The rings can be continuous or open and surround internal shallow lagoons. Strong surf destroys the outer edge of the coral shores; waves throw debris onto the edges of the atolls, where an outer ridge grows, cemented by salts sea water. With strong winds, debris is transported deep into the atolls and washed into lagoons. The organic world is represented by reef-loving plants and animals not only of land, but also of the sea, and in some cases it is difficult to establish where the ocean biotope ends and the land biotope begins. Along the outer edge of the atoll, on reefs and beaches at low tides, there remain many marine organisms that tolerate short-term exposure to air, seaweed, single-celled animal foraminifera with a limestone skeleton, sponges, sea urchins and starfish remaining in deep pools, some sea cucumbers burrowing into the sand, crabs and shrimp. Behind the outer ridge of the atoll, on thin carbonate soils, land vegetation appears that tolerates soil salinity and high salt content in the air: thickets of evergreen xerophytic shrubs, forests of coconut palms, pandanus, banana thickets and breadfruit groves. Apparently, this vegetation is largely of anthropogenic origin; in its natural state, the flora of the islands is limited to very few species of shrubs and trees. On the atolls one can observe the action of the great law of nature, according to which living beings, having originated in the ocean, subsequently moved to land. Coconut groves and forests are home to the palm thief crab, which lives in sandy burrows. It climbs palm trees, uses powerful pincers to pierce the dense shells of nuts and feeds on their pulp. This crab has long adapted to a land-based lifestyle, but still goes to sea for the breeding season.

Another, even more striking example is the mudskipper, a fish that lives in the murky waters among the mangroves that surround the inner lagoons of the atolls. With the help of strong fins, she climbs tree trunks and spends up to 10-20 minutes in the air, hunting for insects. Mangrove forests are an indispensable frame of the lagoons. Some seaweeds live in the muddy bottom along with the mangroves, and the roots of the mangroves are entwined with limestone algae. Almost all types of Polynesian landscapes are represented at the very large archipelago Hawaiian Islands, stretching for 2500 km. They mark the highest peaks of the underwater Hawaiian Ridge, more than 6,500 km long, and are concentrated in its southern third, the most elevated. The Hawaiian archipelago consists of 24 islands with a total area of 16,700 km2, of which 16,273 km2 are on the island of Hawaii (10,399 km2 and the islands of Maui, Oahu, Kauai, Molokan and Lanai. The island of Hawaii is formed by five merged volcanoes, of which Mauna Kea (4,170 m] and Kilauea (1247 m) continue to be active. Other volcanoes, including. highest peak in Polynesia Mauna Kea (4210 m), extinct. The volcanoes of the island have retained the gentle slopes characteristic of shield cones; on Mauna Loa and Kilauea there are huge flat-bottomed craters with lakes of gushing lava, which, during eruptions, overflows over the edges of the craters and rushes down the slopes at high speed, burning all living things in its path. On other large islands, volcanic activity ceased at the beginning of the Quaternary period, and the primary forms of volcanoes were transformed by erosion and denudation into highly rugged mountainous terrain. On small islands, the extinction of volcanism occurred at the end of the Neogene and long-term weathering and abrasion destroyed the volcanoes almost entirely. The central part of the archipelago is formed by small rocky peaks and reefs (Nihoa, Necker, Gardner, etc.), and the northwestern part by coral atolls and reefs. Most of The islands are stretched in a tropical climate zone and are under the continuous influence of northeastern trade winds. Heavy orographic rainfall moistens the windward slopes of the mountainous islands (up to 4000 mm at an altitude of about 2000 m, and the island of Kauai receives more than 12,500 mm of precipitation per year, almost as much as Cherrapunji in India). On the leeward slopes, a lot of precipitation falls only at high altitudes, the remaining areas are dry (no more than 700 mm of precipitation per year) and hot; The tropical heat is aggravated by foehn winds flowing down the slopes. In winter, moist Kona winds blow on the islands, which draw equatorial air along the western periphery of the Hawaiian anticyclone into cyclonic depressions of the polar front passing over the northwestern part of the Kona archipelago, often reaching storm force and bringing sudden downpours.

The northwestern islands of the archipelago lie in a subtropical climate zone, but, removed from the cold California Current, they have higher average seasonal temperatures; Precipitation is cyclonic, maximum in winter (1070 mm falls per year on Midway Island). The flora of Hawaii is highly endemic (up to 93 species) and uniform, as a result of which it stands out as a special Hawaiian subregion of the Paleotropics. It lacks gymnosperms, ficus, and epiphytic orchids. Palm trees are represented by only three species. Mountain-forest landscapes with vertical zonation are developed on the northern and northeastern slopes, while dry forests, savannas and even arid shrubs predominate on the southern and southwestern slopes. In the lower forest belt (up to an altitude of 600-700 m), where moisture is not yet high enough, seasonally wet mixed (deciduous-evergreen) forests develop, in the middle zone (up to 1200 m) permanently wet evergreen forests. From 1200 m to the upper limit of the forest (3000 m) they are replaced by tropical mountain hylaea. The Hawaiian forests, now heavily deforested, contain many trees with valuable timber. Special meaning back in the 19th century. had sandalwood (Santalum album) with aromatic wood, now almost destroyed. On the summit volcanic plateaus, lying in the mountain zone of a temperate climate on fresh, unweathered lavas, the first settlers are ferns, followed by shrubs, asteraceae and xerophytic grasses. Savannas do not rise on slopes higher than 300-600 m. Xerophytic grasses hilo (Heteropogon contortus) and pili (Cynadon dactylon) form a dense turf cover in them, which prevents the appearance of woody vegetation, causing trees (Pandanus spp., erythri-na monosperma) to grow scattered rare groups. On small islands the vegetation is represented by rare xerophytic shrubs and tough grasses; many rocky islands are completely bare. Under savannas, especially under forests, soils of the lateritic series develop, highly saturated with titanium and iron oxides in accordance with chemical composition Lav. Complete deforestation for plantations led to intense erosion, and long-term use of soils without the introduction of necessary fertilizers led to their severe depletion. The islands have a very rich avifauna (67 genera). More than half of the birds lead a sedentary lifestyle and nest on the islands (mainly on small ones, which, with the exception of Midway Island, are declared bird reserves). Many forest bird species have beautiful plumage. Among them, the endemic family of Hawaiian flower girls and the endemic genus of honey suckers stand out.

Some birds fly to the islands for the winter from North America and northeast Asia. In addition to birds from the Hawaiian fauna proper, there is one species of bat, several species of lizards (geckos, skinks), and beetles. A lot of plants from all over the world were deliberately and accidentally brought to the Hawaiian Islands, including weeds that spread greatly and in many areas replaced the local flora; Many animals, as well as birds and insects, came to the islands, some of which also cause great harm. Rabbits, cats, pigs and rats have proliferated incredibly.

Micronesia and Polynesia

Micronesia

Micronesia (Greek: Small Island) includes the Volcano, Bonin, Mariana, Caroline, Marshall, Gilbert, Ellis archipelagos and the islands of Nauru and Ocean. As the name suggests, these islands are all small; the largest of them, Guam (Mariana Islands), has an area of 583 km2. The Western archipelagos of Micronesia from Volcano to the Western Caroline Islands are located in the belt of geosynclinal structures of the Pacific Ocean floor and are the peaks of volcanoes rising from a folded underwater ridge. The topography of the ocean floor in western Micronesia is extremely dissected. It is here, along the eastern edge of the Mariana island arc, that one of the deepest Mariana trenches in the world lies (greatest depth 11,034 m). The tectonic activity of the earth's crust is very pronounced. There are frequent and strong earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The islands have a mountainous terrain (height from 400 to 1000 m), framed by abrasion terraces and coral reefs. Some of them, composed only of limestone, have a very heavily karstified and rugged surface. The islands of eastern Micronesia are coral. They crown the volcanic peaks of the platform floor of the Pacific Ocean and rarely rise above the water by more than 1.5-2.5 m. Many of them have the shape of typical atolls. The islands lie in latitudes from equatorial to subtropical, but under the influence of the warm Kuro-Sivo current, the climate of the northern islands is as hot and humid as the southern ones. The greatest amount of precipitation (from 1500 mm to 2000 mm) falls on the eastern slopes of the mountainous islands, windward of the northeast trade winds. In their natural state, the slopes were covered with dense, moist evergreen tropical forests of areca palm (Areca catechu), pandanus (Pandanus spp.), breadfruit (Artocarpus spp.), and Polynesian ironwood (Casuarina equisetifolla). These forests have not only shrunk in area, but have also been altered by the cutting down of valuable species. The leeward slopes of the islands are occupied by grass savannas, most likely secondary. The atolls of eastern Micronesia are dominated by coconut palms, and mangroves line the inland lagoons.

Polynesia

Polynesia (Greek: Multi-island) unites islands lying generally east of the 180th meridian, between 30° N. w. and 30° S. w. : Hawaiian, atoll and reef Line Islands (Sporades), coral archipelagos of Phoenix and Tokelau, volcanic archipelago of Samoa with active volcanoes, two-row chain of volcanic (western row) and coral (eastern row) islands of Tonga, Cook Islands, Tubuai, Society with a volcanic island Tahiti, the 76 atolls of the Tuamotu, or Russians, the Marquesas and, finally, the secluded Easter Island, with which the myth of the Pacific Atlantis is associated. The islands are the tops of basaltic volcanoes, mostly beheaded by weathering and abrasion, completely or partially covered by reef limestones. Coral islands are a product of the ocean, madrepore corals and calcareous algae. Atolls are shaped like a ring of low reefs ranging from 2 to 150 km across. The rings can be continuous or open and surround internal shallow lagoons. Strong surf destroys the outer edge of the coral shores; waves throw debris onto the edges of the atolls, where an outer ridge grows, cemented by salts of sea water. With strong winds, debris is transported deep into the atolls and washed into lagoons. The organic world is represented by reef-loving plants and animals not only of land, but also of the sea, and in some cases it is difficult to establish where the ocean biotope ends and the land biotope begins. Along the outer edge of the atoll, on reefs and beaches at low tides, there remain many marine organisms that tolerate short-term stays in the air, seaweeds, single-celled animal foraminifera with a limestone skeleton, sponges, sea urchins and starfish remaining in deep pools, some holothurians burrowing in sand, crabs and shrimp. Behind the outer ridge of the atoll, on thin carbonate soils, land vegetation appears that tolerates soil salinity and high salt content in the air: thickets of evergreen xerophytic shrubs, forests of coconut palms, pandanus, banana thickets and breadfruit groves. Apparently, this vegetation is largely of anthropogenic origin; in its natural state, the flora of the islands is limited to very few species of shrubs and trees. On the atolls one can observe the action of the great law of nature, according to which living beings, having originated in the ocean, subsequently moved to land. Coconut groves and forests are home to the palm thief crab, which lives in sandy burrows. It climbs palm trees, uses powerful pincers to pierce the dense shells of nuts and feeds on their pulp. This crab has long adapted to a land-based lifestyle, but still goes to sea for the breeding season.

Another, even more striking example is the mudskipper, a fish that lives in the murky waters among the mangroves that surround the inner lagoons of the atolls. With the help of strong fins, she climbs tree trunks and spends up to 10-20 minutes in the air, hunting for insects. Mangrove forests are an indispensable frame of the lagoons. Some seaweeds live in the muddy bottom along with the mangroves, and the roots of the mangroves are entwined with limestone algae. Almost all types of Polynesian landscapes are represented on the largest archipelago of the Hawaiian Islands, stretching for 2500 km. They mark the highest peaks of the underwater Hawaiian Ridge, more than 6,500 km long, and are concentrated in its southern third, the most elevated. The Hawaiian archipelago consists of 24 islands with a total area of 16,700 km2, of which 16,273 km2 are on the island of Hawaii (10,399 km2 and the islands of Maui, Oahu, Kauai, Molokan and Lanai. The island of Hawaii is formed by five merged volcanoes, of which Mauna Kea (4,170 m] and Kilauea (1247 m) continue to be active. Other volcanoes, including the highest peak in Polynesia, Mauna Kea (4210 m), are extinct. The volcanoes of the island have retained the gentle slopes characteristic of shield cones; Mauna Loa and Kilauea have huge flat-bottomed craters. with lakes of gushing lava, which during eruptions overflows the edges of the craters and rushes down the slopes at high speed, burning all living things on its way. On other large islands, volcanic activity ceased at the beginning of the Quaternary period, and the primary forms of volcanoes were transformed by erosion and denudation into. highly rugged mountainous terrain. On small islands, the extinction of volcanism occurred at the end of the Neogene and long-term weathering and abrasion destroyed the volcanoes almost entirely. The central part of the archipelago is formed by small rocky peaks and reefs (Nihoa, Necker, Gardner, etc.), and the northwestern part by coral atolls and reefs. Most of the islands are located in the tropical climate zone and are under the continuous influence of the northeastern trade winds. Heavy orographic rainfall moistens the windward slopes of the mountainous islands (up to 4000 mm at an altitude of about 2000 m, and the island of Kauai receives more than 12,500 mm of precipitation per year, almost as much as Cherrapunji in India). On the leeward slopes, a lot of precipitation falls only at high altitudes, the remaining areas are dry (no more than 700 mm of precipitation per year) and hot; The tropical heat is aggravated by foehn winds flowing down the slopes. In winter, moist Kona winds blow on the islands, which draw equatorial air along the western periphery of the Hawaiian anticyclone into cyclonic depressions of the polar front passing over the northwestern part of the Kona archipelago, often reaching storm force and bringing sudden downpours.

The northwestern islands of the archipelago lie in a subtropical climate zone, but, removed from the cold California Current, they have higher average seasonal temperatures; Precipitation is cyclonic, maximum in winter (1070 mm falls per year on Midway Island). The flora of Hawaii is highly endemic (up to 93 species) and uniform, as a result of which it stands out as a special Hawaiian subregion of the Paleotropics. It lacks gymnosperms, ficus, and epiphytic orchids. Palm trees are represented by only three species. Mountain-forest landscapes with vertical zonation are developed on the northern and northeastern slopes, while dry forests, savannas and even arid shrubs predominate on the southern and southwestern slopes. In the lower forest belt (up to an altitude of 600-700 m), where moisture is not yet high enough, seasonally wet mixed (deciduous-evergreen) forests develop, in the middle zone (up to 1200 m) permanently wet evergreen forests. From 1200 m to the upper limit of the forest (3000 m) they are replaced by tropical mountain hylaea. The Hawaiian forests, now heavily deforested, contain many trees with valuable timber. Special meaning back in the 19th century. had sandalwood (Santalum album) with aromatic wood, now almost destroyed. On the summit volcanic plateaus, lying in the mountain zone of a temperate climate on fresh, unweathered lavas, the first settlers are ferns, followed by shrubs, asteraceae and xerophytic grasses. Savannas do not rise on slopes higher than 300-600 m. Xerophytic grasses hilo (Heteropogon contortus) and pili (Cynadon dactylon) form a dense turf cover in them, which prevents the appearance of woody vegetation, causing trees (Pandanus spp., erythri-na monosperma) to grow scattered rare groups. On small islands the vegetation is represented by rare xerophytic shrubs and tough grasses; many rocky islands are completely bare. Under savannas, especially under forests, lateritic soils develop, highly saturated with titanium and iron oxides in accordance with the chemical composition of lavas. Complete deforestation for plantations led to intense erosion, and long-term use of soils without the introduction of necessary fertilizers led to their severe depletion. The islands have a very rich avifauna (67 genera). More than half of the birds lead a sedentary lifestyle and nest on the islands (mainly on small ones, which, with the exception of Midway Island, are declared bird reserves). Many forest bird species have beautiful plumage. Among them, the endemic family of Hawaiian flower girls and the endemic genus of honey suckers stand out.

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials from the site http://rgo.ru were used

general characteristics

Definition 1

Micronesia is a collection of several groups of small islands of Oceania: the Gilbert Islands, the Marshall Islands, the Mariana Islands and some others - more than 1.5 thousand islands in total. Micronesia is distinguished by small land areas (2.6 thousand sq. km) and significant maritime economic zones.

Micronesia has the following dependent territories and states:

Nauru;
Kiribati (Gilbert Islands);
Marshall Islands (United States of America);
Federated States of Micronesia;
Guam (United States of America);
Palau (United States of America);
Northern Mariana Islands (United States of America).

Geographically, Micronesia is divided into: the Caroline Islands, the Marshall Islands, the Kiribati Islands, the Mariana Islands and the island of Nauru. The Mariana Islands and the Western Carolinas are islands of volcanic origin.

The largest atolls: Rongelap (Rimsky-Korsakov); Bikini (Eschscholza); Maloelap (Arakcheeva); Eniwetok (Brown); Majuro; Kusaiye, Tarawa, Ulithi, Senyavina, Truk.

Marshall Islands

The Marshall Islands are a group of islands and atolls located north of the equator in the Pacific Ocean. The islands and atolls form two chains: Ralik and Ratak, stretching from northwest to southeast for 1200 km. The largest islands are Majuro and Kwajalein. Kwajalein is an atoll with the largest lagoon in the world.

The closest archipelagos are the Gilbert Islands (Republic of Kiribati) and Caroline Islands(Federated States of Micronesia). The Marshall Islands occupy 181.3 square kilometers. km, lagoons - 11,673 sq. km.

The relief of all the islands is low, the highest point (10 m) is located on Likiep Atoll. Atolls consist of a large number of motu, small islands formed as a result of the uplift of a coral reef.

The outermost atolls of the Marshall Islands are:

Bokak Island (Taongi) – north;
Ebon Atoll – south;
Ujelang Atoll – west; Knox Atoll - east.

The Marshall Islands is a huge exclusive economic zone characterized by limited natural resources, shortage of qualified specialists, remoteness from the world's main markets. Economic difficulties are manifested in the state budget deficit, low level of domestic savings, and a lack of balance of payments. The country is heavily dependent on finance provided by the Asian Development Bank.

The most stable components in the economy at present are the public sector, economic and financial income from the Reagan Proving Ground (United States), located on Kwajalein Atoll.

Main sectors of the economy: agriculture and services. Food crops are grown mainly for personal consumption (breadfruit, coconut palm, bananas, pandanus, taro, cucumbers, watermelons, pineapples, peppers, eggplants, tomatoes, cabbage, etc.). The most important agricultural product is copra.

The priority sector of the economy is fishing. The population catches coastal fish and crabs. The main export is tuna. There are pearl farms on the Majuro and Namorik atolls, and a tridacnis breeding station on Likiep.

Tourism is developing dynamically. The state is a popular offshore zone.

Caroline and Mariana Islands

The Caroline Islands include about 1,000 grouped and individual islands and atolls. The total area of the territory is about 1160 square meters. km. Most large islands and groups: western group - Palau (Babeltuap Island) and Yap; eastern group - the islands of Senyavin, Truk, Kusaie.

All large islands are of volcanic origin and surrounded by coral reefs. The islands of the eastern group were formed on the ocean floor, while the western group belong to a collection of island arcs and are experiencing constant slow rise.

The Mariana Islands are an island arc located in a seismically active zone in the western Pacific Ocean. The islands are located at equal distances (2500 km) from the Philippines and Papua New Guinea.

The Mariana Islands include such large islands as: Agihan, Alamagan, Agrihan, Anatahan, Guam, Asuncion, Guguan, Maug, Rota, Pagan, Saipan, Tinian, Sarigan, Farallon de Medinilla, Farallion de Pajaros.

There are many underwater volcanoes around the islands. More than 10 volcanoes form the islands themselves.

Islands of Kiribati. Nauru

All the islands of Karibati are atolls (32 low-lying atolls and one elevated atoll - Banaba). The total land area is 812.34 square meters. km.

All islands of Kiribati are divided into groups:

Gilbert Archipelago.
Banaba Island.
Phoenix Archipelago.
Archipelago Line.

Kiribati is an agricultural country. Its economy is dominated by the public sector. Characterized by slow economic growth and low levels of services. Difficulties economic development are associated with remoteness from world markets, vulnerability to natural disasters, geographical dispersion, limited domestic market, and small labor resources.

The only path to economic development lies in attracting monetary assistance and financial transfers from other countries, and attracting migrants.

The main source of income for the Kiribati islands is fishery products and copra. The main employer is the state.

There are natural obstacles to the development of agriculture - small areas of atolls. High level of land cultivation technology. Agricultural development has had an adverse impact on the vegetation cover of the islands and has led to deforestation. The most important agricultural crop is the giant swamp taro. Pandanus, papaya, and breadfruit are also cultivated. Recently, the production of copra, the country's main export product, has increased.

Nauru is a coral island located in southern Micronesia in the western Pacific Ocean near the equator. The total area of the territory is 21.3 square meters. km. Nauru is one of the rare coral islands - a raised atoll. The island has several small lakes Anabar and freshwater lake Buada (remnant of an ancient lagoon).