Russian travelers and their discoveries, 19th century. Forgotten Russian travelers of the 19th century. Preparation of a new expedition
The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research were of particular importance. Russian travelers We visited places where no European had ever set foot before. In the second half XIX century. their efforts were focused on exploring the interior of Asia.
Expeditions into the depths of Asia began Pyotr Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), geographer, statistician, botanist. He made a number of trips to the mountains of Central Asia, to the Tien Shan. Having headed the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in developing plans for new expeditions.
The activities of other people were also associated with the Russian Geographical Society Russian travelers- P. A. Kropotkin and N. M. Przhevalsky.
P. A. Kropotkin in 1864-1866 traveled through Northern Manchuria, the Sayan Mountains and the Vitim Plateau.
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) He made his first expedition along the Ussuri region, then his paths ran through the most inaccessible areas of Central Asia. He crossed Mongolia and Northern China several times, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, and visited Tibet. He died on the way, at the beginning of his last expedition. In connection with the news of his death, A.P. Chekhov wrote that such “ devotees are needed like the sun». « Constituting the most poetic and cheerful element of society, he added, they excite, console and ennoble... If the positive types created by literature constitute valuable educational material, then the same types given by life itself are beyond all price».
Overseas Russian travel scientists in the second half of the 19th century. became more focused. If previously they were mainly limited to description and mapping coastline, then now the life, culture, and customs of local peoples were studied. This is a direction that began in the 18th century. put by S.P. Krasheninnikov, it was continued Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888). He made his first trips to Canary Islands and by North Africa. In the early 70s he visited a number of islands Pacific Ocean, studied the life of local peoples. He lived for 16 months among the Papuans on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (this place has since been called the Maclay Coast). The Russian scientist won the trust and love of local residents. Then he traveled to the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, and returned again to " Maclay coast" The scientist’s descriptions of the life and customs, economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania were largely published only after his death.
World geographical science in those years relied heavily on the achievements of Russian researchers. TO end of the 19th century V. The era of geographical discoveries has ended. And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian explorers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.
Russian navigators, along with European ones, are the most famous pioneers who discovered new continents, sections of mountain ranges and vast water areas.
They became the pioneers of significant geographical objects, took the first steps in the development of hard-to-reach territories, and traveled around the world. So who are they, the conquerors of the seas, and what exactly did the world learn about thanks to them?
Afanasy Nikitin - the very first Russian traveler
Afanasy Nikitin is rightfully considered the first Russian traveler who managed to visit India and Persia (1468-1474, according to other sources 1466-1472). On the way back he visited Somalia, Turkey, and Muscat. Based on his travels, Afanasy compiled the notes “Walking across the Three Seas,” which became popular and unique historical and literary aids. These notes became the first book in Russian history not written in the format of a story about a pilgrimage, but describing the political, economic and cultural features of the territories.
Afanasy Nikitin
He was able to prove that even being a member of a poor peasant family you can become famous researcher and a traveler. Streets and embankments in several places are named after him. Russian cities, motor ship, passenger train and aircraft
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Semyon Dezhnev, who founded the Anadyr fortress
Cossack ataman Semyon Dezhnev was an Arctic navigator who became the discoverer of a number of geographical objects. Wherever Semyon Ivanovich served, everywhere he sought to study new and previously unknown things. He was even able to cross the East Siberian Sea on a homemade kocha, going from Indigirka to Alazeya.
In 1643, as part of a detachment of explorers, Semyon Ivanovich discovered Kolyma, where he and his associates founded the city of Srednekolymsk. A year later, Semyon Dezhnev continued his expedition, walked along the Bering Strait (which did not yet have this name) and discovered the easternmost point of the continent, later called Cape Dezhnev. An island, a peninsula, a bay, and a village also bear his name.
Semyon Dezhnev
In 1648, Dezhnev hit the road again. His ship was wrecked in the waters located in the southern part of the Anadyr River. Having arrived on skis, the sailors went up the river and stayed there for the winter. Subsequently this place appeared on geographical maps and received the name Anadyrsky fort. As a result of the expedition, the traveler was able to do detailed descriptions, make a map of those places.
Vitus Jonassen Bering, who organized expeditions to Kamchatka
Two Kamchatka expeditions inscribed the names of Vitus Bering and his associate Alexei Chirikov into the history of marine discoveries. During the first voyage, the navigators conducted research and were able to supplement the geographical atlas with objects located in Northeast Asia and on the Pacific coast of Kamchatka.
The discovery of the Kamchatka and Ozerny peninsulas, the Kamchatka, Krest, Karaginsky bays, Provedeniya Bay, and St. Lawrence Island is also the merit of Bering and Chirikov. At the same time, another strait was found and described, which later became known as the Bering Strait.
Vitus Bering
The second expedition was undertaken by them with the aim of finding a way to North America and studying Pacific Islands. On this journey, Bering and Chirikov founded the Peter and Paul fort. It took its name from the combined names of their ships (“St. Peter” and “St. Paul”) and subsequently became the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
On the approach to the shores of America, the ships of like-minded people lost sight of each other, due to heavy fog. "St. Peter", controlled by Bering, sailed to the west coast of America, but was caught in a severe storm on the way back - the ship was thrown onto an island. The last minutes of Vitus Bering’s life passed on it, and the island subsequently began to bear his name. Chirikov also reached America on his ship, but completed his voyage safely, having discovered several islands of the Aleutian ridge on the way back.
Khariton and Dmitry Laptev and their “name” sea
Cousins Khariton and Dmitry Laptev were like-minded people and assistants to Vitus Bering. It was he who appointed Dmitry as commander of the ship “Irkutsk”, and his double boat “Yakutsk” was led by Khariton. They took part in the Great Northern Expedition, the purpose of which was to study, accurately describe and map the Russian shores of the ocean, from the Yugorsky Shar to Kamchatka.
Each of the brothers made a significant contribution to the development of new territories. Dmitry became the first navigator to take photographs of the coast from the mouth of the Lena to the mouth of the Kolyma. He compiled detailed maps these places, using mathematical calculations and astronomical data as a basis.
Khariton and Dmitry Laptev
Khariton Laptev and his associates conducted research on the northernmost section of the Siberian coast. It was he who determined the dimensions and outlines of the huge Taimyr Peninsula - he carried out surveys of its eastern coast, and was able to identify the exact coordinates of the coastal islands. The expedition took place in difficult conditions - a large number of ice, snowstorms, scurvy, ice captivity - Khariton Laptev’s team had to endure a lot. But they continued the work they had started. On this expedition, Laptev's assistant Chelyuskin discovered a cape, which was later named in his honor.
Noting the great contribution of the Laptevs to the development of new territories, members of the Russian Geographical Society decided to name one of them after them. largest seas Arctic. Also, the strait between the mainland and Bolshoy Lyakhovsky Island is named in honor of Dmitry, and Khariton is named after West Coast Taimyr Islands.
Krusenstern and Lisyansky - organizers of the first Russian circumnavigation
Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky are the first Russian navigators to circumnavigate the world. Their expedition lasted three years (began in 1803 and ended in 1806). They and their teams set off on two ships, which were named “Nadezhda” and “Neva”. The travelers passed through Atlantic Ocean, entered the waters of the Pacific Ocean. The sailors used them to reach the Kuril Islands, Kamchatka and Sakhalin.
Ivan KrusensternThis trip made it possible to collect important information. Based on the data obtained by the sailors, a detailed map of the Pacific Ocean was compiled. Another important result of the first Russian round-the-world expedition was the data obtained about the flora and fauna of the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka, local residents, their customs and cultural traditions.
During their journey, the sailors crossed the equator and, according to maritime traditions, could not leave this event without a well-known ritual - a sailor dressed as Neptune greeted Kruzenshtern and asked why his ship had arrived where the Russian flag had never been. To which I received the answer that they are here solely for the glory and development of domestic science.
Vasily Golovnin - the first navigator who was rescued from Japanese captivity
Russian navigator Vasily Golovnin led two expeditions around the world. In 1806, he, being in the rank of lieutenant, received a new appointment and became commander of the sloop "Diana". It is interesting that this is the only case in the history of the Russian fleet when a lieutenant was entrusted with the control of a ship.
The leadership set the goal of the round-the-world expedition to study the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, with special attention to that part of it that is located within the borders of their native country. Diana's path was not easy. The sloop passed the island of Tristan da Cunha, passed the Cape of Hope and entered a port owned by the British. Here the ship was detained by the authorities. The British informed Golovnin about the outbreak of war between the two countries. The Russian ship was not declared captured, but the crew was not allowed to leave the bay. After being in this position more than a year, in mid-May 1809, the Diana, led by Golovnin, tried to escape, but the sailors successfully succeeded - the ship arrived in Kamchatka.
Vasily Golovin Golovnin received his next important task in 1811 - he was supposed to compile descriptions of the Shantar and Kuril Islands, the shores of the Tatar Strait. During his journey, he was accused of not adhering to the principles of sakoku and was captured by the Japanese for more than 2 years. It was possible to rescue the team from captivity only thanks to the good relations between one of the Russian naval officers and an influential Japanese merchant, who was able to convince his government of the harmless intentions of the Russians. It is worth noting that before this, no one in history had ever returned from Japanese captivity.
In 1817-1819, Vasily Mikhailovich made another trip around the world on the Kamchatka ship, specially built for this purpose.
Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev - discoverers of Antarctica
Captain of the second rank Thaddeus Bellingshausen was determined to find the truth in the question of the existence of the sixth continent. In 1819, he went out to the open sea, carefully preparing two sloops - Mirny and Vostok. The latter was commanded by his like-minded friend Mikhail Lazarev. The first round-the-world Antarctic expedition set itself other tasks. In addition to finding irrefutable facts confirming or refuting the existence of Antarctica, the travelers planned to explore the waters of three oceans - the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian.
Thaddeus Bellingshausen The results of this expedition exceeded all expectations. During the 751 days that it lasted, Bellingshausen and Lazarev were able to make several significant geographical discoveries. Of course, the most important of them is the existence of Antarctica, this historical event occurred on January 28, 1820. Also, during the trip, about two dozen islands were found and mapped, sketches of Antarctic views, and images of representatives of the Antarctic fauna were created.
Mikhail Lazarev
Interestingly, attempts to discover Antarctica were made more than once, but none of them were successful. European navigators believed that either it did not exist, or it was located in places that were simply impossible to reach by sea. But the Russian travelers had enough perseverance and determination, so the names of Bellingshausen and Lazarev were included in the lists of the greatest navigators of the world.
Yakov Sannikov
Yakov Sannikov (circa 1780, Ust-Yansk, Russian Empire - after 1811) - Russian merchant from Yakutsk, miner of arctic fox, mammoth tusks and explorer of the New Siberian Islands.
Known as the discoverer of the ghost island “Sannikov Land”, which he saw from the New Siberian Islands. He discovered and described the islands of Stolbovaya (1800) and Faddeevsky (1805).
In 1808-1810 he participated in the expedition of the exiled Riga Swede M. M. Gedenstrom. In 1810 he crossed the island of New Siberia, in 1811 he walked around Faddeevsky Island.
Sannikov expressed the opinion of the existence of a vast land north of the New Siberian Islands, in particular from Kotelny Island, called “Sannikov Land”.
After 1811, traces of Yakov Sannikov were lost. Neither his further occupation nor the year of death are known. In 1935, pilot Gratsiansky, who was flying in the lower reaches of the Lena River, near Kyusyur, discovered a tombstone with the inscription “Yakov Sannikov.” The strait through which today passes a section of the Northern Sea is named in his honor. sea route. Opened in 1773 by the Yakut industrialist Ivan Lyakhov. Initially, the strait was named after the expedition doctor E.V. Tolya V.N. Katina-Yartseva F.A. Mathisen. The current name was given by K.A. Vollosovich on his map, and in 1935 approved by the government of the USSR.
Grigory Shelikhov
Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov (Shelekhov; 1747, Rylsk - July 20, 1795, Irkutsk) - Russian explorer, navigator, industrialist and merchant from the Shelekhov family, who since 1775 has been involved in the development of commercial trade shipping between the Kuril and Aleutian island ranges. In 1783-1786 he led an expedition to Russian America, during which the first Russian settlements in North America were founded. He organized several trading and fishing companies, including in Kamchatka. Grigory Ivanovich developed new lands for the Russian Empire and was the initiator of the Russian-American company. Founder of the North-Eastern Company.
The bay was named in his honor. Shelikhov Bay (Kamchatka region, Russia) is located between the Asian coast and the base of the Kamchatka Peninsula. Belongs to the waters of the Sea of Okhotsk.
Ferdinand Wrangel
Wrangel showed himself to be at his best, and he, tested in a difficult circumnavigation, was entrusted with leading an expedition to the extreme northeast of Siberia, to the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma, in order to map the coast of the Arctic Ocean up to the Bering Strait, and in addition to test the hypothesis about the existence of an undiscovered land connecting Asia with America.
Wrangel spent three years in the ice and tundra with his companions, among whom his main assistant was Fyodor Matyushkin, a lyceum friend of A.S. Pushkin.
In between campaigns to the North, under the leadership of Wrangel and Matyushkin, a topographical survey of the huge coast was taken, covering 35 degrees in longitude. In the territory of the recent white spot, 115 astronomical points were identified. For the first time, studies were carried out on the influence of climate on the existence and development of sea ice, and in Nizhnekolymsk the first weather station in this region was organized. Thanks to meteorological observations from this station, it was established that the “pole of cold” of the Northern Hemisphere is located between the Yana and Kolyma rivers.
Ferdinand Wrangel described the expedition and its scientific results in detail in a book that was first published in 1839 and was a huge success. The famous Swedish polar explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld called it “one of the masterpieces among the works on the Arctic.”
The expedition in the Chukotka-Kolyma region put Wrangel on a par with the largest explorers of the harsh Arctic. Having subsequently become one of the founders of the Russian Geographical Society, he thought through the project of an expedition to the North Pole. He proposes to go to the Pole on a ship that should spend the winter near north coast Greenland, in the fall, prepare food warehouses along the route of the polar party, and in March people go out exactly in the direction of the meridian on ten sledges with dogs. It is interesting that the plan for reaching the pole, drawn up by Robert Peary, who entered the pole 64 years later, repeated Wrangel’s old project in the smallest detail. An island in the Arctic Ocean, a mountain and a cape in Alaska are named after Wrangel. Having learned about the sale of Alaska by the Russian government in 1867, Ferdinand Petrovich reacted very negatively to this.
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Russia was becoming a great maritime power, and this posed new challenges for domestic geographers.
In 1803-1806. The first Russian round-the-world expedition was undertaken from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. It was headed by Admiral Ivan Fedorovich Krusenstern (1770-1846). He commanded the ship "Nadezhda". The ship "Neva" was commanded by captain Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky (1773-1837). During the expedition, the islands of the Pacific Ocean, China, Japan, Sakhalin and Kamchatka were studied. Detailed maps of the explored places were compiled. Lisyansky, having independently made the transition from Hawaiian Islands to Alaska, collected rich material about the peoples of Oceania and North America.
The attention of researchers around the world has long been attracted by the mysterious area around South Pole. It was assumed that there was a vast southern continent there. English navigator J. Cook in the 70s of the 18th century. crossed the South Arctic Circle, encountered impassable ice and declared that sailing further south was impossible. Since then, no south polar expeditions have been undertaken for a very long time.
In 1819, Russia equipped an expedition on two sloops to the southern polar seas under the leadership of Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen (1778-1852). He commanded the sloop Vostok. The commander of Mirny was Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev (1788-1851). Bellingshausen was an experienced explorer and participated in Krusenstern's voyage. Lazarev subsequently became famous as a combat admiral, who trained a whole galaxy of naval commanders (Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin).
The expedition crossed the Antarctic Circle several times, and in January 1820 it saw the ice coast for the first time. Approaching it in the area of the modern Bellingshausen ice shelf, the travelers concluded that in front of them was an “ice continent.” Then the island of Peter I and the coast of Alexander I were discovered. In 1821, the expedition returned to its homeland, having made the discovery of Antarctica and a complete voyage around it in small sailing ships, poorly adapted to polar conditions.
In 1811, Russian sailors led by captain Vasily Mikhailovich Golovkin (1776-1831) examined Kurile Islands and were taken into Japanese captivity. Golovkin's notes on his three-year stay in Japan introduced Russian society with the life of this mysterious country. Golovnin's student, Fyodor Petrovich Litke (1797-1882) explored the Northern Arctic Ocean, the shores of Kamchatka and America. He founded the Russian Geographical Society, which played a major role in the development of geographical science.
Large geographical discoveries in the Russian Far East are associated with the name of Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky (1813-1876). In 1848-1849 he sailed around Cape Horn to Kamchatka, and then led the Amur expedition. He discovered the mouth of the Amur, the strait between Sakhalin and the mainland and proved that Sakhalin is an island, not a peninsula.
The expeditions of Russian travelers, in addition to purely scientific results, were of great importance in the matter of mutual knowledge of peoples. In distant lands local residents They often learned about Russia for the first time from Russian travelers. In turn, Russian people were enriched with knowledge about other countries and peoples.
In the 19th century, Russian explorers made a number of outstanding geographical discoveries. In 1803 I. Kruzenshtern on "Nadezhda" and "Neva" made the 1st Russian round the world expedition having researched northern part Pacific Ocean, Sakhalin, Alaska, Aleutian Islands. Yu. Lisyanakiy discovered one of the Hawaiian Islands on the Neva. In 1819-21 F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev on the sloops “Vostok” and “Mirny” made the 2nd Arctic expedition. During its 16.1.1820 ships approached Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the “ice continent.” After resting in Australia, the expedition moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean and discovered islands in the Tuamotu archipelago. They were named in honor of Kutuzov, Lazarev, Raevsky, Barclay de Tolly, Ermolov and others. After resting in Sydney, the ships returned to Antarctica and discovered about. Peter I and the land of Alexander I. In July 1821, the ships returned to Kronstadt, bringing great amount materials and collections. The development of Russian America is associated with the name of A. Baranov. A merchant from Kargopol had been trading in Alaska since 1790. He compiled detailed maps of Alaska and nearby islands. In 1799 Baranov became the ruler of the colonies in America. In 1804 He founded Novoarkhangelsk. Baranov tried to annex Hawaii to Russia, but failed. Despite his illness, he remained at his post until his death. The territory of the Far East remained a blank spot on the Russian map. In 1848, Nicholas 1 sent to Far East expedition of G. Nevelsky. He proved that Sakhalin is an island and explored the lower reaches of the Amur. E. Putyatin during the round-the-world expedition of 1822-25. discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands and concluded an agreement with Japan. Expeditions around the world were made by V. Golovin-1807-11, F. Litke-1826-29 and compiled 50 cards. I. Voznesensky described Alaska, the Aleutian and Kuril Islands in 1839-40. In 1809 A. Kolodkin began studying the Caspian Sea. In 1848, E. Hoffman and M. Kowalski explored the North. Ural. In 1845, the Russian Geographical Society was created.
Chapter No. 8
Lecture No. 36
Russian culture in the 19th century
First half of the 19th century
Education and science
At the very beginning of the 19th century, a system of higher, secondary and primary education was finally formed in Russia. Conducted in 1803 In 2009, reform in the field of education led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial city, and a college in every district city. Parochial schools were also created in rural areas; children of different classes were accepted into them. The Ministry of Public Education was created to manage educational institutions.
IN 1811 was opened Alexandrovsky (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum, in which representatives of the highest noble society studied (among them A.S. Pushkin),
The government of Alexander I paid great attention to the development of higher education. In addition to the only Moscow University in Russia, only in the first two decades of the century five new ones were opened: Dorpat (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Vilna (1804), St. Petersburg (1819).
Under Nicholas I, all types of schools were preserved, but each of them became class-separated. Parochial one-class schools were now intended for representatives of the “lower classes.” They taught the Law of God, literacy and arithmetic for a year. The district three-year schools accepted the children of merchants, artisans, and townspeople. Here they taught the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history and geography. The children of nobles, officials, and merchants of the first guild studied in seven-grade gymnasiums. In 1827, the authorities once again pointed out the impossibility of educating the children of serfs in gymnasiums and universities. Control over universities, which were considered sources of “unreliability,” was strengthened. In 1835, universities were stripped of their internal autonomy status.
The number of military educational institutions, in which mainly young nobles were trained, was increasing. The Imperial Military Academy was opened in 1832, and the Artillery and Artillery Academy in 1855. Engineering Academy.
The growth of industrial production and the development of technology have caused an increase in the need for specialists in technical specialties. In the first half of the 19th century, the number of vocational educational institutions increased. In the early 1830s, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, the Institute of Railway Engineers, and the Mining Institute were opened in St. Petersburg. A Commercial Academy, an Agricultural School, a Mining School, and a Technical School were opened in Moscow.
The development of domestic science has greatly contributed to the improvement of the education system.
Scientific discoveries
| Biology | |
| Ivan Alekseevich Dvigubsky | Refuting the assertion about the immutability of plants and animals, he argued that the earth's surface and the creatures inhabiting it undergo fundamental changes over time under the influence of natural causes. |
| Ustin Evdokimovich Dyadkovsky | He put forward and proved the idea that all phenomena in nature are caused by natural causes and are subject to general laws of development. Life, in his opinion, is a continuous physical and chemical process. |
| Karl Maksimovich Baer | A serious step forward in substantiating ideas about the development of living organisms was the work “The General Law of the Development of Nature.” |
| Medicine | |
| Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov | Professor of the Medical-Surgical Academy, founder of military field surgery. In the years Crimean War For the first time in the field, he used anesthesia during surgery and used a fixed plaster cast to treat fractures. |
| Mathematics | |
| Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky | Created non-Euclidean geometry |
| Physics | |
| Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov | Developed a galvanic battery. It made it possible to obtain a stable electric arc - a prototype of the future light bulb |
| Boris Semenovich Jacobi | He invented the electric motor and electroforming, a method of applying a thin layer of metal to a desired surface using electricity. Invented the direct-printing machine for the telegraph |
| Emil Christianovich Lenz | Established a rule for determining the direction of the driving force of induction (Lenz's law, and a year later an electric motor was invented on this basis |
| Pavel Lvovich Schilling | Created the world's first practically usable electric telegraph - a device for transmitting written messages over wires |
| Chemistry | |
| Konstantin Sigismundovich Kirchhoff | Developed a method for producing glucose. |
| German Ivanovich Hess | Discovered the fundamental law of thermochemistry, which expressed the principle of conservation of energy in relation to chemical processes |
| Pyotr Grigorievich Sobolevsky and Vasily Vasilievich Lyubarsky | Laid the beginning of powder metallurgy |
| Science in production | |
| Pavel Petrovich Anosov | Developed four technology options for producing damask steel |
| Efim and Miron Cherepanov, serf mechanics | Built the first steam railway |
| Chemists N.N. Zinin and A.M. Butlerov | Created sustainable chemical dyes for the booming textile industry |
| Story | |
| Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin | Wrote the 12-volume “History of the Russian State” |
| Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev | Wrote “The History of Russia from Ancient Times” in 29 volumes |
Russian discoverers and travelers
| Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky | In 1803-1806, during the first Russian round-the-world expedition, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped. A lot of data was collected by the expedition members about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. As a result of the expedition, Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials were used as the basis for the published Atlas of the South Seas. |
| Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev | In 1819-1821 Bellingshausen was instructed to lead a new expedition around the world on the boats (single-masted ships) Vostok and Mirny. In 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, unknown at that time, which Bellingshausen called the “ice continent.” After stopping in Australia, Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russian Islands. During 751 days of sailing, Russian sailors made the most important geographical discoveries, bringing back valuable collections, observation data on the waters of the world's oceans and the ice cover of a continent new to mankind. |
| Alexander Andreevich Baranov | He made a huge contribution to the development of Russian America. Being a merchant, he searched for minerals, founded Russian settlements and supplied them with everything they needed. It was he who managed to secure vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America for Russia |
| Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky | In 1848-1855. he managed to bypass Sakhalin from the north, open a number of new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. |
| Evfimy Vasilievich Putyatin | In 1852-1855 being the leader of the expedition, he discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. Together with Nevelsky, he began to secure the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia. |
Art culture
"Golden Age" of Russian Literature
In the first half of the 19th century, Russian literature entered its “golden age”. She raised the most important social problems, one of the main ones being the problem of strengthening national identity. Writers and poets turned to the historical past of the country and tried to find answers to modern questions in it.
An important feature of the development of literature and art of this time was the rapid change of artistic trends and the simultaneous existence of various artistic styles.
The dominant direction in Russian and European art of the early 19th century remained classicism. His followers imitated classical ancient art. However, Russian classicism had its own characteristics. If in the second half of the 18th century he was more associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment of the people, then under the influence of the Napoleonic wars the ideas of serving the sovereign and the Fatherland were laid in the basis of the works of classicism.
The most striking example of the combination of literary work and the activities of a historian was the creativity Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin. In the story “Martha the Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod,” he compares the republican (embodied in the history of Novgorod) and autocratic (Moscow) traditions of Russian history. Despite his sympathy for republican ideas, Karamzin makes his choice in favor of autocracy, and thereby a united and strong Russian state. His scientific work “History of the Russian State” was also imbued with these thoughts.
The sentimentalism of Karamzin and other writers manifested itself in the idealization of rural life, the relationship between peasants and landowners, and the moral traits of man in previous eras.
One of the leading trends in the artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century was romanticism. Romanticism is a movement in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely hero who opposes himself and the world of his soul to the surrounding world.
Russian romanticism was characterized by an increased interest in national identity, traditions, national history, and the establishment of a strong, liberated personality
The creator of Russian romanticism is considered to be Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a poet whose works: the ballads “Lyudmila” and “Svetlana” became examples of the style of new literature.
In addition to him, representatives of romanticism were the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.I. Odoevsky.
At the beginning of their work, romantic works were created by the great poets Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov. Their works, in contrast to the dreamy and sometimes mystical works of Zhukovsky, were characterized by optimism in life and an active position in the struggle for ideals. These features were predominant in the romantic literature of the early 19th century, and it was they who marked the transition to realism, which became the main style in the 3-40s. outstanding examples of literature of this direction were the works of the late Pushkin (rightfully considered the founder of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama “Boris Godunov”, the stories “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, “Belkin’s Tales”, the poem “The Bronze Horseman”, etc. as well as Lermontov’s novel “A Hero of Our Time”.
In the 20-50s. Another new direction is becoming widespread - realism. His followers tried to depict the surrounding reality in its most typical manifestations. One of the trends in the new style was critical realism, revealing the unfavorable aspects of life and the very content of the works demanding changes.
The founder of the “natural school” (critical realism) was Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol. One of the striking works of this artistic movement was his story “The Overcoat”, which, along with his other works: “Dead Souls”, “The Inspector General”, and others, marked the beginning of the “Gogol period” of Russian literature of the 30-40s. “We all came out of Gogol’s “The Overcoat”,” F.M. later noted. Dostoevsky.
Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky showed the realistic world of Russian merchants to the reader in his first drama “Our People – We Will Be Numbered,” who revealed the distinctive features of the representatives of the merchant class, which was rapidly increasing its importance. The playwright worked in his youth at the Moscow Commercial Court, where he gained rich life experience related to the life and customs of the Russian merchants.
In the 40-50s. central place The theme of the fortress village, its customs and morals took over literature. A literary event was the publication of “Notes of a Hunter” by Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, which described not only the nature of the Central Russian zone, but also the serfs, whom he treated with sympathy and kindness.
The hopeless poverty and downtroddenness of the serf peasant were depicted in the stories of Dmitry Vasilyevich Grigorovich “Village” and “Anton the Miserable”. As one of his contemporaries wrote, “not a single educated person of that time... could read about Anton’s misfortunes without tears and not be indignant at the horrors of serfdom.”
The first half of the 19th century was the time of the formation of a modern literary language, based on the traditions of folk speech and replacing the ponderous written language of the previous century.
Theater
In the Russian theater, the change in artistic directions occurred as quickly as in literature.
At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism dominated on the stage of Russian theaters with its inherent ancient and mythological plots and external pomp.
In 20-30 years. a romantic school appears with its characteristic inner experiences of heroes. The largest representative of romanticism in the Russian theater was Pavel Stepanovich Mochalov, who gained particular popularity in the roles of Hamlet (in the tragedy of the same name by W. Shakespeare) and Ferdinand (in F. Schiller’s drama “Cunning and Love”). His acting was distinguished by intense emotionality, and his heroes were distinguished by their selfless struggle for freedom and justice.
In the 40s A new page begins in the history of Russian theater, associated with the development of the realistic direction. In dramaturgy it was associated with the works of Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky. The founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor of the Moscow Maly Theater Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin, a native of serfs. He was a true reformer of Russian acting art. Shchepkin was the first to propose subordinating the entire performance to a single idea. Each new role of Shchepkin at the Maly Theater became the largest social event in the life of Moscow.
Another remarkable actor from the school of stage realism was Alexander Martynov. His work is associated with the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. He conveyed with excellent skill the experiences and everyday life of the “little man” of his time.
An important feature of the development of the theater in those years was that the previously unified Petrovsky Theater in Moscow in 1824 was divided into the Bolshoi (intended for opera and ballet productions) and the Maly (dramatic). In St. Petersburg, the most famous was the Alexandrinsky Theater, which differed from the more democratic Moscow Small Theater in its official character.
Music
Music, more than other forms of art, was influenced by the heroic year of 1812. If previously everyday opera had prevailed, now composers turned to the heroic subjects of Russia’s historical past. One of the first in this series was the opera by K.A. Kavos "Ivan Susanin".
The entire first half of the 19th century passed under the sign of the strengthening of Russian national themes and the influence of folk melodies in musical works. Folk motifs sounded in the musical works of A.E. Varlamova, A.A. Alyabyeva, A.L. Gurilev.
The romantic direction in musical art belongs to Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, who laid the foundations of the Russian national school in music. “The people create music,” he said, and we, artists, only arrange it.”
Glinka managed to establish not only folk, but also realistic traditions in Russian music. He became the founder of the main genres of domestic professional music. The most vivid idea of the composer’s work is given by his opera “A Life for the Tsar” (“Ivan Susanin”). In it, Glinka glorified the simple peasant patriot and at the same time the courage, fortitude and greatness of character of the entire Russian people.
The development of the national theme in music was continued by another Russian composer - Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky. His main work - the opera "Rusalka" - marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk psychological drama.
Painting
During this period, there was a rejection of classicism with its characteristic biblical and mythological subjects, admiration for the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. Artists' interest in the personality of man, in the life of not only gods and kings, but also ordinary people, is growing.
The largest figure of classicism in Russian painting was Karl Pavlovich Bryullov. In one of his most famous and large-scale works - “The Last Day of Pompeii” - for the first time he presented the people as a hero, conveying the dignity, heroism and greatness of the common man in conditions of a natural disaster. In this work, Bryullov outlined his desire for realism. It manifested itself in all his paintings: “Self-Portrait”, “Horsewoman”, etc.
The remarkable portraitists Orest Adamovich Kiprensky and Vasily Andreevich Tropinin became prominent representatives of romanticism in painting. Kiprensky created portraits of A.S., remarkable in their expressiveness. Pushkin and A.N. Olenin (president of the Academy of Arts). In them he showed the sublime beginning, the inner world of the moods and experiences of his heroes, known throughout Russia. A distinctive feature of Tropinin’s work was showing a person in his surroundings, doing what he loved. These are his genre portraits “Lacemaker”, “Guitar Player”, “Gold Seamstress”, etc. Tropinin is also famous for being the author of the second lifetime portrait of A.S. Pushkin.
Alexander Andreevich Ivanov became one of the greatest masters of Russian painting. The main work of his life was the painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People,” on the creation of which the artist worked for 20 years. The main idea of the picture is confidence in the need for moral renewal of people. Each person from the many depicted in the picture is individual and unique. The artist managed to show the high purpose of enlightenment. A word that can show people the path to a better future.
The founder of critical realism in Russian painting was Pavel Andreevich Fedotov. In his genre paintings he was able to express major social problems. Such were, for example, his works: “Fresh Cavalier” and “Major’s Matchmaking”, in which the drama of situations and the author’s critical position in relation to reality are visible.
The birth of a popular everyday genre in the 19th century is associated with the work of Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov. His paintings became a real discovery in Russian painting. They were dedicated to the daily work and life of peasants. In the works of the 20s. “On the arable land. Spring", "At the harvest. Summer”, “Zakharka”, in the portrait gallery of peasants he depicted their life in poetic colors, subtly feeling and conveying the beauty of their native nature. This direction of painting is usually called the “Venetian school”.
I.K. worked in the seascape genre. Aivazovsky. His canvases amaze with their amazingly picturesque depictions of the sea elements. The painting “The Ninth Wave” became especially famous, being a striking example of the master’s unsurpassed professionalism and testifying to the romantic nature of his work during this period.
The center of artistic life in Russia at that time was the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, opened in Moscow in 1832.
Architecture
In the architecture of the first half of the century, classicism lingered longer than in other areas of artistic creativity. He dominated almost until the 40s. Its pinnacle at the beginning of the 19th century was the style empire style, expressed in massive monumental forms, rich decorations, and strict lines inherited from imperial Rome. Sculptures that complemented the architectural design of buildings were also an important element of the Empire style. Palaces and mansions of the nobility, buildings of higher government institutions, noble assemblies, public places, theaters and even temples were erected in the Empire style.
The beginning of the 19th century was a time of rapid development of the capitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as the central part of large provincial cities. A feature of the construction of this period was the creation of architectural ensembles - a number of buildings and structures combined into a single whole. It was then that Dvortsovaya, Admiralteyskaya and Senate squares were formed in St. Petersburg, and Teatralnaya in Moscow.
The largest representatives of the Russian Empire style were Andreyan Dmitrievich Zakharov, who created the Admiralty building in St. Petersburg, Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, which laid the foundation for the ensemble of Nevsky Prospekt.
Karl Ivanovich Rossi also worked in the Empire style, creating the building of the Alexandrinsky Theater, the Public Library, the Senate and the Synod.
In Moscow, the works of Osip Ivanovich Bove were carried out in the Empire style: Red Square, reconstructed after the fire of 1812, theatre square with the Bolshoi Theater, Triumphal Gate and etc
Architects Domenico Gilardi and Afanasy Grigorievich Grigoriev worked a lot and fruitfully in Moscow. They restored the public buildings of Moscow destroyed by the fire of 1812: Slobodsky Palace, Catherine Institute, Moscow University.
With the beginning of the decline of classicism in the 30s. The “Russian-Byzantine” style begins to spread. Architect Konstantin Andreevich Ton created the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory Chamber, the Nikolaevsky (now Leningradsky) Station, etc. in this style.
The largest Orthodox church St. Petersburg was St. Isaac's Cathedral, built in 1818-1858. designed by the architect Auguste Montferrand, the floor was personally supervised by Emperor Nicholas I.
| Architect O. Monferrano. Saint Isaac's Cathedral | Interior decoration St. Isaac's Cathedral |
Sculpture
The development of sculpture was closely related to the development of architecture. There are especially many works that are organically integrated into architectural ensembles was created by sculptors Ivan Petrovich Vitali: bust of Pushkin, angels at the lamps on the corners of St. Isaac's Cathedral and Pyotr Karlovich Klodt: “Horse Tamer” on Anichkov Bridge. In St. Petersburg, an equestrian monument to Nicholas I installed on the square in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.
In 1804, Ivan Petrovich Martos created a monument to Minin and Pozharsky.
Monument to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, one of the most famous monuments Moscow. Located on Red Square, next to St. Basil's Cathedral. It was the first monument in Moscow erected not in honor of the sovereign, but in honor of national heroes. Funds for the monument were collected by popular subscription. Martos worked on the monument from 1804 to 1817. This is the best creation of Martos, who managed to embody in it the high ideals of civic valor and patriotism. The sculptor depicted the moment when Kuzma Minin, pointing his hand towards Moscow, hands Prince Pozharsky an ancient sword and calls on him to stand at the head of the Russian army. Leaning on the shield, the wounded governor rises from his bed, which symbolizes the awakening of national self-awareness in a difficult hour for the Fatherland.
The first half of the 19th century went down in history as the beginning "golden age" Russian artistic culture. It was distinguished by: the rapid change of artistic styles and directions, the mutual enrichment and close interrelation of literature and other areas of art, the strengthening of the social sound of the works created, the organic unity and complementarity of the best examples of Western European and Russian folk culture. All this made the artistic culture of Russia diverse and polyphonic, leading to an increase in its influence on the lives of not only the enlightened strata of society, but also millions of ordinary people.
Second half of the 19th century
Education
The first two decades after the abolition of serfdom passed under the sign of awareness by society and the state of the need for widespread education of the people. The educational reform carried out in 1864 expanded the network of primary educational institutions in Russia, which were divided into three types:
1) zemstvo schools, created by zemstvo forces
2) church schools
3) public schools of the Ministry of Public Education
According to the reform, secondary educational institutions were divided into two types:
-classical gymnasiums– they placed the main emphasis on studying humanities subjects; gymnasium graduates could enter universities without exams;
Real schools differed from gymnasiums in their greater attention to the natural sciences: mathematics, physics, chemistry; real schools prepared for entry into technical higher educational institutions.
Zemstvos began to play a huge role in the spread of education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10 thousand zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference to parochial schools, but the state did not have enough money to maintain them. Therefore, the zemstvo school continued to be the most common type primary school, covering all provincial and district cities, as well as many rural areas. Main type high school there were gymnasiums. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia; a quarter of a century later, the number of gymnasiums increased 3 times. By the beginning of the 90s. About 300 girls' gymnasiums were opened.
There were also successes in higher education. New universities opened in Tomsk and Odessa. In 1863, a new university charter came into force, expanding the rights of universities to govern themselves.
There were special higher educational institutions - the Medical-Surgical Academy, the Technological, Mining, and Transport Universities, the Electrotechnical University, and the Petrovsky Agricultural Academy. The formation of higher women's education was taking place. By the end of the 19th century, there were over 60 state higher educational institutions in Russia.
However, in general, the literacy rate of the Russian population remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the 1897 census, the average literacy rate of the country's population was 21.1%. Higher education had just over 1% of the population, with an average of 4%.
Scientific discoveries
| Mathematics and physics | |
| Pafnutiy Lvovich Chebyshev – mathematician and physicist | He designed a plantigrade machine. Simulating the movement of an animal when walking, as well as an automatic adding machine - an adding machine. |
| Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov - physicist | By measuring the ratio of electromagnetic electrostatic units, he obtained a value close to the speed of light, this discovery contributed to the establishment of the electromagnetic theory of light |
| Alexander Stepanovich Popov – physicist | He made a receiver-transmitter, and after a few years he achieved a 150-kilometer transmission and reception range. For his discovery he was awarded the Grand Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900. |
| Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov - physicist | He created an electric arc light bulb, which soon illuminated the streets and houses of many cities around the world. |
| Naval officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky | Designed the world's first airplane |
| Self-taught mechanic Fedor Abramovich Blinov | Invented the crawler tractor |
| Chemistry, biology | |
| Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev - chemist | Discovered the periodic law of chemical elements, |
| Rector of Kazan University Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov-chemist | Laid the foundations of organic chemistry |
| Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev - soil scientist | Dokuchaev's published works on Russian soils were awarded a gold medal; in his book, he outlined a plan to combat the drought that affected the black soil zone of Russia by planting forest shelterbelts |
| Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov - biologist | He created the doctrine of brain reflexes, thereby carrying out a revolution in biological science. He was the first to scientifically prove the unity and mutual conditionality of mental and physical phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is nothing more than the result of the work of the brain |
| Ivan Petrovich Pavlov - biologist | He created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, which laid the foundation for modern ideas about the brain of animals and humans. Pavlov proved that the conditioned reflex is the highest and most recent form of adaptation of the organism to the environment. If an unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant innate reaction of the body, inherent in all representatives of a given species, then a conditioned reflex is a new acquisition of the body, the result of its accumulation of individual life experience. |
| Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov and Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya - biologists | They organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, developed methods to combat rabies, and paid great attention to the control of pests of agricultural plants. |
| Geography | |
| Academician, Admiral Fedor Petrovich Litke - geographer | Explored Kamchatka, Chukotka and a number of islands in the North Pacific Ocean |
| Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky - geographer | He carried out major geological and zoological surveys of Central Asia, discovered a number of mountain ranges and large mountain lakes unknown to Europeans, and for the first time descriptions of some animals were given: wild horse, wild camel, Tibetan bear. In the herbarium he collected, which numbered up to 16 thousand specimens, 218 new plant species were discovered |
| Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay - geographer | Dedicated his life to the study of peoples South-East Asia, Australia, Pacific Islands. He lived for two and a half years on the northeastern coast of New Guinea. He won the love and trust of its residents. He visited the southwestern coast of this island, the southeastern coast, made two difficult journeys to the interior of Malacca, visited the Philippines and Indonesia, lived in Australia, where he founded a biological station. |
| Humanitarian sciences | |
| Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History and Philology, and then Rector of Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov | He created the 29-volume “History of Russia since Ancient Times.” His “Public Readings on Peter the Great,” dedicated to the 200th anniversary of the birth of the great reformer of Russia, became a major scientific and social phenomenon. He was also a supporter of the comparative historical research method, pointing out the common features of the development of Russia and Western Europe. |
| Solovyov's student Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky | He brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation “The Boyar Duma” at Moscow University Ancient Rus'" He was the author of the “Course of Russian History”, which he taught at Moscow University |
Domestic science second half of the 19th century century has reached the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons for this phenomenon were those favorable changes in the life of the country that came along with the abolition of serfdom; they awakened the initiative of the Russian people.
Literature
The main artistic movement of the second half of the 19th century was critical realism. He was distinguished by increased attention to the display of real life on the basis of its critical perception. The literature of that time was characterized by a spirit of denunciation, a keen interest in the life of the common man, and the desire to find ways and means to combat the vices of society. The most striking example of critical literature is the work of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin. Russia appears funny, but at the same time scary, in the works of the satirist: “Provincial Sketches”, “The History of a City”, “Lord Golovlev”, “Pompadours and Pompadours”. The artistic device the writer uses is grotesque. In his works he takes to the extreme all existing vices and weaknesses. The writer knows no mercy either for officials, or for representatives of high society, or for merchants, or for the emerging bourgeoisie.