Where is the Panama Canal located? The Panama Canal - from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean between the two Americas. Who controls the Panama Canal

The Panama Canal is a shipping canal connecting the Bay of Panama with the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The Panama Canal is a route for ships carrying global cargo. On the world map it connects the Pacific Ocean with the Atlantic and Caribbean Seas.

Thanks to the construction of the canal, ships do not bypass Latin America to get to San Francisco. The route from New York is less than 10 thousand km. The Panama Canal (located in Panama on the world map) serves for yachts, boats and large tankers. Its width is a standard in shipbuilding.

Vessels that are not large enough to pass through the canal bypass South America. It handles up to 48 tankers per day; completion takes 9 hours (minimum 4 hours); More than 10 thousand ships pass annually.

The first person to notice that a small isthmus separates two oceans was the Spanish explorer Vasco Nunez de Balboa in the 16th century. The idea of ​​​​creating a water artery did not arise then.

Start of construction

In 1534, by order of the King of Spain, Charles V, a shortcut was discovered between the countries of Spain and Peru. This was beneficial for the Spaniards during the war. Due to undeveloped technology and knowledge in the 16th century. construction was not carried out. In the 18th century A researcher from Italy, Alesandro Malaspina, had a plan to create a canal, but it was not started.

In 1879, the French laid the foundation for the canal. Ferdinand de Lesseps and Alexandre Gustave Eiffel (creator of the Eiffel Tower) started the work. The French government allocated funds, but a third of them were spent for their intended purpose; the rest was plundered.

At the start of work, it was decided to build the canal at sea level; the idea of ​​​​building locks was rejected, which was one of the reasons for the failure of the project.

More than 20 thousand workers died from diseases and tragic accidents. Work was suspended. Alexandre Gustave Eiffel and Ferdinand de Lesseps were accused of embezzlement of material assets. The latter died from attacks and mental disorders in 1894.

Late 19th – early 20th century

Throughout the 19th century, the United States considered the construction of the Panama or Nicaraguan canals: the implementation of the latter project seemed more profitable. France did not have the opportunity to continue creating the canal, so the American government bought the rights, equipment and work performed for $40 thousand.

The only method to obtain the canal is Panama's independence from Colombia.

In the fall of 1903, US ships appear in Colombian waters, and the streets are filled with civic activists advocating for sovereignty. On November 4, the Independent Republic of Panama came into existence. whose authorities give the riverbed and adjacent lands to the American government.

Construction began with the preparation of the nearby territory: the Americans drained the swamps, cut down the thickets, destroyed insects and their larvae. The risk of fever was reduced to 2%, work began in 1904. The process of creating the canal accelerated as American builders began by constructing locks and reservoirs.

US President Thomas Woodrow Wilson completed the construction by pressing a button to blow up the last barrier near the village of Gamboa on October 10, 1913. The work lasted 9 years. The Panama Canal (on the world map flowing into the Atlantic Ocean) received the ship Cristobal on August 3, 1914.

Transfer of control to the Panamanian government

After the channel's discovery, American and Panamanian authorities argued over ownership. In the latter, there were uprisings when the authorities were not allowed to hang the Panamanian flag next to the American one on the riverbed. The Panamanian government temporarily cut off relations with America.

History of the Panama Canal:

In 1977, US President Jimmy Carter and General Omar Torrijos signed a document that transferred control to Panama from 2000. American politicians expressed dissatisfaction, but the US Senate gave the agreement legal force. The US owned the canal until December 31, 1999, and then transferred it to Panama.

Current status

Today the canal is owned by Panama. It has been modernized, expanded and deepened. The canal authority charges container ships a toll. The cost of transit is determined by the length of the vessel, displacement, and cargo transported. The cost of transportation for a large ship is $49 per 1 TEU since 2006.

The passage of the vessel itself is paid additionally.

For others, the ship's displacement affects the amount of payment:

• 1 t – 10000 t – $2.96;
• each of the next 10 thousand tons – $2.90;
• each subsequent ton is $2.85.

Length is a determining factor for small ships:

Length	Bid
≤ 14 m	$500
14 m–28 m	$750
28 m–36 m	$2000
≥36 m	$2500

The passage of one huge container ship can cost half a million dollars. The cheapest freight was 36 cents to Richard Halliburton in 1928.

The Panama Canal on the world map connects the Pacific Ocean with the Atlantic Ocean passing through the Caribbean Sea

The Panama Canal is one of the wonders created by man, a tourist site, and not just an isthmus connecting 2 oceans. Museums have been built in cities located near the locks. Contains exhibits and documents telling about the process of creating the water artery. Near the canal, platforms have been built from which the operation of the sea route can be observed.

Channel configuration

The shape of the channel is similar to the letter “S”. It consists of lakes, deep rivers and ditches created by man. To level the water level of the canal, locks are needed (a difference of 26 m). As a ship passes along the sea route, the water in the canal increases or decreases.

The fairway is equipped with 2 groups of locks. They are double-stranded - they transport ships in both directions, but more often they go in one direction. The capacity of each lock is over 100 thousand cubic meters. m of water; width – 34 m, length – 304 m, depth – 12 m. A gateway of 3 chambers (“Gatun”) is located from the Atlantic, connecting Lake Gatun and Limon Bay.

Lifting of vessels is 26 m to the lake level. The gateway is equipped with a camera.

From the Pacific Ocean there is a gateway of 2 Miraflores chambers; connects the channel and Panama Bay. Equipped with a video camera that broadcasts the operation of the gateway via the Internet. Together with the Miraflores gateway, the Pedro Miguel gateway operates.

The Panama Canal on the world map is located near the settlements of the same name.

Work on the creation of the 3rd line of locks began 11 years ago in order to increase the transit of ships in the waterway. The length of the new structure is 427 m, width – 55 m, depth – 18 m. Since 2017, the canal has received twice as many ships and tankers.

Tourists watch the system work while traveling (a road and railway run parallel to the canal) or book a tour ($10). The Miraflores lock is open to travelers. They get to the building by taxi or bus for 25 cents. The excursion includes a visit to the museum and observation deck.

Information about the operation of the system is announced via speakerphone.

Channel expansion

The need to expand the Panama Canal arose due to the increase in trade volumes. On October 23, 2006, as a result of a vote to expand the waterway, about 80% of Panamanians supported the plan. With control of the channel, Chinese business companies contributed to the development of the project.

In 2016, it became possible for oil tankers with a displacement of more than 100 thousand tons to pass through. The delivery time for oil from Venezuela to China has decreased, and the Venezuelan authorities' promises of supplies of about 1 million barrels per day have come true.

The reconstruction project involved: deepening the bottom, building additional locks, and increasing the number of ships passing through the waterway. After modernization, vessels with a displacement of about 150 thousand tons enter the fairway; the number of tankers and ships is 19 thousand ships per year.

The expansion plan cost $5 billion.

Changes in the riverbed have a positive effect on the country’s budget: by 2017, the profit amounted to $2.5 billion, by 2025 it will reach $4 billion. The Panamanian authorities entrusted the work to the community, the main participant of which was the Spanish enterprise. The start was planned for 2009; completion of construction – 2014

April 2015 – installation of the last locks, which meant the end of the reconstruction. The modernization of the fairway has been called historic by Panamanian authorities. June 26, 2016 – passage of a Chinese container ship through the updated waterway.

Interesting facts about the Panama Canal

The Panama Canal on the world map is a little visible isthmus between two continents; in 2014 it celebrated its centenary. The event was timed to coincide with the release of a book about the construction of the sea route “You Are a Miracle”, the film “Stories about the Canal”, and a change in the logo of the operating company “Canal de Palma”.

1. The name of the headdress - Panama - comes from the name of the channel. The waterway builders wore these hats to protect themselves from the sun's rays. Panama is an element of the national clothing of the inhabitants of Ecuador; the primary name is Ecuadorian.
2. The construction of a “twin” canal in Nicaragua has been approved. The lake through which the channel will be laid is a source of fresh water, so experts are concerned about its condition.
3. Currently, the Panama Canal receives the world's most important vessels, which generates income for Panama for its maintenance.
4. Waterway locks operate 24 hours a day with a high level of productivity, since the passage of large-capacity vessels occurs non-stop.
5. The Panama Canal is the longest man-made canal in the world.
6. The Panama Canal Universal Measurement System determines the cost of transporting cargo using a mathematical formula.
7. The total number of operating gateways is 12.
8. The continued safe passage of ships is governed by a number of rules. So, the agent announces the arrival of the tanker and prepares documents for registration. When approaching, the ship communicates with the coordinator through signal stations. Specialists conduct a preliminary inspection of the ship in the Pacific or Atlantic hangars. All elements of equipment and auxiliary vehicles must be in good working order so as not to delay transit.
9. The narrowest and steepest place in the riverbed is the Culebra notch.
10. The Panama Canal Authority gives the "Honorary Captain" award to those who pass through the waterway 100 times. In 2015, the Russian commander of the ship, Anatoly Rubanov, was awarded the title.

The Panama Canal is one of the wonders of construction in the history of mankind. It connects the Caribbean Sea with the 2 largest oceans on the world map and makes a significant contribution to the economy of Panama.

Article format: E. Chaikina

Useful video about the Panama Canal

Documentary about the Panama Canal from Discovery:

The construction of the Panama Canal was one of the most important milestones in navigation. Commissioned in 1920 (the first ship passed through it in 1914, but due to a landslide in the fall of that year, official traffic was opened only six years later), the canal shortened the distance between the ports of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans several times - previously, To get from one ocean to another, ships had to go around South America all the way around Cape Horn. Today, the Panama Canal is one of the world's main shipping routes, through which about 18 thousand ships pass annually (the current canal capacity is 48 ships per day), which constitutes a significant part of the world's cargo turnover.

The history of the Panama Canal dates back to the 16th century, when the Spaniard Vasco Nunez de Balboa was the first to cross the Isthmus of Panama and reach the Pacific coast - so it was discovered that the territory of modern Panama is only a narrow strip of land between the oceans. In 1539, the Spanish king sent an exploration expedition to study the possibility of building a waterway across the Isthmus of Panama, but the expedition reported to the king that this idea was not feasible.

The first real attempt to build the Panama Canal was made by the French in 1879 under the leadership of Ferdinand de Lesseps, a diplomat and director of the Suez Canal project, which had opened shortly before, in 1869. But building the Panama Canal was a much more difficult task. In 1889, the French project went bankrupt - the challenge posed by the Panamanian jungle with its tropical rains, impenetrable swamps and at the same time rocky soils, floods and, worst of all, deadly epidemics of malaria, yellow fever, plague, typhus and other diseases was too difficult , which claimed the lives of about 20 thousand people in the first campaign.

Then the States took up the construction of the Panama Canal. The United States was interested in shortening the waterway from the ports of California to its Atlantic coast, and most importantly, the Panama Canal had enormous military significance - it made it possible to almost instantly transfer a fleet from one ocean basin to another, which significantly increased the power and global influence of the United States. In 1903, the United States bought the Panama project from the French, ensured Panama's independence from Colombia, which did not want to provide the Americans with the canal zone for essentially indefinite use, and then signed a formal agreement with the new Panamanian government (which was again represented by the Frenchman Philippe-Jean Bunod -Varilla, who was one of the main participants in the bankrupt first project). The treaty gave the United States a 5-kilometer zone on each side of the canal for indefinite use (that is, essentially forever) and the exclusive right to occupy territories outside this zone as part of any measures to protect the waterway. Thus, the declaration of the canal as neutral and the guarantee of free passage through the canal for military and merchant vessels of all nations, both in time of peace and in war, was destroyed by the American stipulation that these regulations would not apply to such measures as the United States considered necessary to take for the defense of Panama and maintaining order in the channel. In fact, in a war in which the United States participated, its military fortifications would inevitably deprive the other belligerent of the opportunity to use the canal on an equal footing.

John Frank Stevens became the chief engineer of the Panama Canal. Taking into account the mistakes of the French, the Americans first of all took enormous measures to disinfect the construction area and prevent tropical diseases. The project was also changed - according to the French project, the Panama Canal, like the Suez Canal, was supposed to be built at the same level as the oceans, without locks. This required a colossal amount of excavation work on the watershed section of the route. American engineers changed the project and proposed a lock canal with three stages of locks on each side and a watershed section at an altitude of 26 meters above ocean level. The Gatun Reservoir was created on the watershed, into which ships from the Atlantic side were raised in the Gatun locks, and from the Pacific side - in the Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks.

The Panama Canal opened in 1920 and remained under US control for many years. There were dozens of American military bases in the canal zone, and about 50 thousand military and civilian specialists worked. Over time, dissatisfaction with this began to grow more and more in Panama, and in 1977 an agreement was signed on the gradual transfer of the Panama Canal from the United States to Panama. In reality, this process took more than two decades, and the canal zone finally came into the possession of Panama on December 31, 1999.

The length of the canal is 81.6 kilometers, of which 65.2 kilometers are actually on land and another 16.4 approach kilometers along the bottom of the Panama and Limon bays to deep water. Vessels large enough to pass through the Panama Canal are called Panamax vessels. This standard was the main one for seagoing vessels until the early 1990s, when active construction of Post-Panamax class vessels (mainly tankers) began, the dimensions of which are larger than the dimensions of the Panama Canal locks. Today, the cost of one trip through the Panama Canal depends on the type and size of the vessel and ranges from $800 for a small yacht to $500,000 for the largest vessels. There were also funny cases - for example, in 1928, the famous American traveler Richard Halliburton, who sailed through the canal from one ocean to another, was charged 36 cents. :)

The Panama Canal today is not only one of the world's most important transport connections, but also the main tourist attraction of Panama. The Panama Canal now operates a large tourist center at the Miraflores locks, where from several special observation platforms you can see the locks and the ships passing through them, while the loudspeaker tells about each ship, its route and what it is carrying. There are other tours - by bus along the canal, by rail, walks on small boats; Some standard Caribbean cruises take cruise ships through the Gatun Locks up the Atlantic side of the canal to the watershed and then back out into the Caribbean Sea (and tourists can sail the rest of the Panama Canal on excursions). But by far the best, most unique and enthusiastic way to see the Panama Canal is to transit it entirely on a cruise ship, cross it from the Atlantic to the Pacific (or vice versa) and continue the cruise further in a completely different ocean basin. Absolutely everyone, even the most experienced travelers, prepare for the passage of the Panama Canal in a completely special way.

The actual passage of the Panama Canal takes on average about 9 hours, not counting the waiting time for ships in huge sea roads on each side. The cruise ship, naturally, is strictly on schedule and heads into the canal immediately, out of turn. The Zaandam approaches the Panama Canal Zone at approximately 5 am. The entrance to the spacious approach area of ​​the Panama Canal from the Caribbean Sea is marked by powerful lighthouses and protected by many kilometers of dams. At the entrance to the canal in the roadstead, dozens of ships of all sizes and colors stand waiting for their turn, brightly lit in the night. And on the shore of the bay there is the city and port of Colon, with a huge container terminal. The same container terminal is located at the other entrance to the canal - thus, container ships of the “Post-Panamax” class (that is, larger than the locks of the Panama Canal) are unloaded at these entrance ports, containers with cargo are transported along the railway running along the canal, and then on the other side they board new ships and continue the route. The railway between ports is also used to partially unload large container ships passing through the canal to reduce their draft.

1. It’s five in the morning, it’s just starting to get light, but most tourists are already on their feet: entering the Panama Canal is one of the central events of the cruise! We enter the approaching water area, from the board in the pre-dawn twilight the lights of the Colon port are visible.

4. Having taken on board a group of pilots, we head to the entrance - from the Caribbean Sea, the Panama Canal begins with a three-stage staircase of Gatun locks, in which ships rise from the level of the Atlantic Ocean to the watershed section of the canal.

5. To the left of the existing two-line locks, starting in 2007, an additional third line of Panama Canal locks has been built.

They will be significantly larger than the existing ones and will increase the maximum size and draft of ships that can sail through the canal. If the current locks have dimensions of 304.8 x 33.5 and a depth of 12.8 meters, then the new ones are respectively 427 x 55 x 18.3. In addition to the construction of the second stage of locks, the fairway at the Culebra watershed is currently being expanded and deepened, so that two-way traffic of vessels along the entire length of the canal becomes possible (currently, traffic and locking on the Panama Canal is essentially one-way - first a group of ships goes in one direction, then in the opposite direction, and the ships diverge on wider lake sections of the route). After the completion of this large-scale reconstruction, the capacity of the Panama Canal will double.

6. Old and new locks of the Panama Canal

9. Longitudinal profile of the Panama Canal

11. At 6-30 am we approach the Gatun locks. The movement of ships along one of the most important transport connections in the world goes on continuously, from the bow of the Zaandam we can clearly see four ships rising up the lock stairs in front of us, two in each line.

12. On the bank of the canal there are huge gates for the second stage of locks under construction - they were made in Italy and were delivered to the canal recently, at the end of August 2013.

13. We approach the first gateway. Clumsy sea vessels are moved from chamber to chamber with the help of special locomotives, to which mooring lines are attached and tensioned. Locomotives with stretched moorings attached to them accompany the ship on four sides (at the bow and stern on each side) - thus, a perfectly clear entry of huge sea vessels into a very small chamber compared to their size is carried out. Mooring lines from the locomotives are supplied to the ship using a boat.

14. The mooring lines are secured - let's go! :)

15. We enter the first lock chamber - ships rise from the Caribbean Sea to the watershed area in the three-stage Gatun locks. The total lifting height is 26 meters. Accordingly, just under nine meters per step. But from aboard a huge sea liner, this nine-meter drop is not perceived as significant.

16. There is incredible excitement on the decks!

17. Since the United States finally withdrew from the Panama Canal in 1999, the unique structure has been maintained and maintained entirely by Panama. The channel is in good hands! :)

18. The locomotive, starting the ship from the stern on the starboard side, deftly climbs up. Now the gates will close and the locking will begin.

19. Having risen in the first, we move to the second chamber.

20. One of the Panama Canal webcams is installed in the Gatun locks, which broadcast images on the Internet in real time. At this moment, many of my friends and colleagues are watching us walk through the locks. This is what the Zaandam slowly rising along the Atlantic slope of the Panama Canal looks like from the side. :)

21. Having completed the locking in the third chamber, “Zaandam” rises to the level of the watershed section of the canal. From the stern there is a stunning view of the lock staircase going down and the ships ascending it behind us. Breathtaking! Far below lies the expanse of the Caribbean Sea. And for us - to the Pacific Ocean. Goodbye Atlantic! :)

24. Having risen through the Gatun locks, the ship enters the lake of the same name. Lake Gatun is actually a large reservoir formed on the watershed by a large dam on the Chagres River, which is clearly visible on the right side.

The canal is fed with water from Lake Gatun. Such canals, in which the reservoir feeding them with water is located in a watershed area, from which water is distributed by gravity to both slopes, are called canals with natural feeding (gravity). In our country these are the Volga-Baltic and White Sea-Baltic canals.

25. On Lake Gatun there is another raid of ships waiting their turn at the locks and waiting for the end of locking of those who are coming towards them. When the second stage of the Panama Canal is put into operation, traffic along the entire length of the route will become completely two-way.

26. The route along the Gatun Reservoir is approximately half the entire length of the Panama Canal. We admire the surrounding landscapes of the equatorial belt from the deck.

29. The fairway is not wide and quite winding. The waterway is marked with special buoys.

30. At the Gatun Reservoir, ships going in opposite directions diverge. A caravan of ships is coming towards us, having passed through the locks of the Pacific slope in the morning and now heading towards the Atlantic slope of the canal. Large tankers, bulk carriers, container ships pass very close by...

35. The Zaandam is also viewed with interest from the bridges of oncoming cargo ships. The passage of cruise ships through the Panama Canal is a fairly rare event.

36. On the left side you can see the confluence of the Chagres River, which is crossed by a bridge. Gatun Reservoir ends here. Next, the canal route passes through the artificially dug Culebra cut.

37. A railway runs along the Panama Canal route, along which containers are transported from the Atlantic port to the Pacific port and vice versa. Sometimes tourist trains also run along it.

38. We go through the Culebra notch - the narrowest part of the Panama Canal.

39. In some areas, ships move along the canal accompanied by tugs. There is a whole special flotilla of them working on the Panama Canal.

40. In the place where the Culebra notch crosses a high mountain range, the banks rise steeply in steps, and the cable-stayed Centennial Bridge is already visible in the distance. It was built in 2004 and became the second permanent bridge over the canal. By the way, bridges over the Panama Canal connect two continents - let's not forget that the Panama Canal not only connects two oceans, but also separates the two Americas. The motto of Panama and the Panama Canal, “A Land Divided - A World United”, I think, is clear without additional translation. Now we have North America on the starboard side, and South America on the left side. :)

41. Rising with stone ledges and reinforced with powerful anchors, the slopes of the excavation in this place are reminiscent of some fantastic Mayan pyramids. In principle, in terms of its grandeur, the Panama Canal is a structure quite comparable to them. The volume of rock excavated during the creation of the Culebra excavation is equal in volume to 63 Cheops pyramids in Egypt.

43. Soon after the bridge, the watershed section of the canal ends and the descent to the Pacific Ocean begins, which ships also overcome in three 9-meter steps. But the Pacific slope is a little flatter - if on the Atlantic slope all three steps are located in a row in the Gatun locks, then here there are two groups of locks - Pedro Miguel (1 step) and Miraflores (2 steps), separated by a small intermediate pool. So, we go into the Pedro Miguel locks.

44. Approximately the same view opens from the captain's bridge. From this angle you can clearly see how narrow the lock chamber is compared to the colossal dimensions of ocean-going ships. Even with locomotives guiding the vessel, the navigators here require pinpoint precision. All ships navigate the canal with a group of local pilots.

46. ​​Locomotives bring the Emerald Express tanker into the parallel chamber.

47. At this time on its decks.

48. Having finished sluicing in the Pedro Miguel locks, the Zaandam enters the small Lake Miraflores, like Lake Gatun, formed by the dam. Here we will have to wait a little - along a parallel thread of locks a huge floating crane is being pulled towards us, and for some time the ships go only along one thread.

49. We go out into the water area and stop. We'll have to wait half an hour until the ship in front of us locks into two chambers, and it's our turn.

50. The ships following us are also waiting - a small traffic jam! :)

51. On the left you can see the dam on the river that formed the Miraflores reservoir.

Location: Panama
Opening: June 12, 1920
Length: 81.6 m
Bandwidth: 48 ships per day
Coordinates: 9°06"09.5"N 79°41"14.1"W

Content:

Short description

Today, the Panama Canal, which connects the Caribbean Sea, the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, is still considered one of the greatest and, undoubtedly, the most complex construction projects in the entire history of mankind.

Bridge of the Americas

Its length is relatively short: only 81 kilometers and 600 meters. 65 kilometers also pass on land, and 16.5 kilometers along the bottom of the Limon and Panama bays. All these figures are of interest to sociologists, geologists, ichthyologists and, to some extent, historians. However, the Panama Canal is a real revolution in the economy and shipping throughout our vast planet. One can only imagine how shortened the route is for ships traveling from the largest metropolis in the world, New York, to San Francisco. Before the vital canal was put into operation, ships had to travel a distance of almost 23,000 kilometers between the two cities. Thanks to the canal built by mankind, this section of the journey was reduced to only 9,500 kilometers.

The canal is located in Panama, which translated from the Indian language into Russian sounds like “a place where there are a lot of fish.” Panama is an amazingly beautiful state, and the Panama Canal is one of its main attractions, a kind of monument to the perseverance and heroism of the people who took part in its construction. In 2012, on the pages of The New York Times, the most popular newspaper not only in the United States, but throughout the world, a list of places that are recommended for people who are interested in travel and tourism must be visited. It is interesting that this small list, by the way, was headed by Panama.

Construction of the Panama Canal

As mentioned above, a canal that connects the two great oceans in a place convenient for navigation was necessary. This was well understood not only by our contemporaries, but also by people who lived back in the 16th century. It was then that Alessandro Malaspina proposed a unique project for the construction of the Panama Canal. This idea aroused the rage of King Philip II of Spain, who was a devout Catholic. “What God created on Earth, what he considered necessary to connect, we simply do not have the right to tear apart!” said the king and in a special document approved a ban not only on construction, but even on the development of any such projects.

Documents that have survived to this day allow historians to draw a certain conclusion: The first construction of the Panama Canal started in 1879 and... turned into a terrible disaster. A disaster for humanity and a disaster for the economy. The nightmare, which was called the “construction of the Panama Canal” at the end of the 19th century, was led by Ferdinand Lesseps, who had already become famous for the construction of the Suez Canal.

The big name of the construction manager did not cause even the slightest doubt among society and influential businessmen of that time about the success of the enterprise. A company was officially registered in Paris, called the “General Company of the Interoceanic Canal”. Its shares were in consistently high demand and were, even by modern standards, extremely expensive, which did not prevent more than 800,000 people from purchasing them. This was not surprising; everyone firmly believed in the success of the grandiose construction. By the way, in one of the Forbes magazines, a wealthy investor gave a short interview in which he admitted that if he had lived at that time, having studied all the possible risks, he would, without a single doubt, have invested most of the funds in the construction of the Panama Canal.

Nine long years have passed since the start of construction, more than $300,000,000 were spent, which for that period of time was considered a colossal amount, and the work was not even a third completed. The budget was exceeded, the project of Ferdinand Lesseps was fundamentally wrong. His inaccurate calculations not only led to the bankruptcy of the company, but also claimed the lives of more than 20,000 people. “People are dying one after another, they are affected by yellow fever and malaria, doctors cannot cope with the epidemic, workers are fleeing the construction site as if from a place cursed by God,” one of the chief engineers wrote in his reports. Ferdinand Lesseps was accused of the largest scam and arrested. Naturally, this brilliant architect, who made a lot of mistakes, did not want to get rich in this way, therefore, unable to withstand such a blow of fate, he lost his mind.

This story of the first construction of the Panama Canal will forever remain a dark spot in history. Now the largest financial frauds, "pyramid schemes", are often called "Panama", which is reminiscent of the biggest scam of the late 19th century, which was not meant to be.

Still, the Panama Canal, as mentioned above, was necessary. And the authorities of the United States of America understood this very well. They analyzed all the errors in the calculations of the author of the previous project and thought about how to protect workers from epidemics. By the way, it was thanks to the new construction of the Panama Canal that two researchers made a discovery: a person becomes ill with yellow fever when bitten by a mosquito that carries the causative agent of this terrible disease. Mosquitoes had to be destroyed at any cost: not far from the construction, entire forests were burned, even small bushes were uprooted, grass was mowed, and swamps in which mosquitoes bred were drained. The result was achieved: 1,500 people reduced the mosquito population to almost nothing, and workers were no longer threatened by malaria and yellow fever.

The new project was developed in the shortest possible time by John Frank Stevens, who proposed using artificial lakes and special locks for the canal that would regulate the water level. Already in 1904, new construction of the Panama Canal began, which lasted almost 10 years. It cost the United States $400 million. True, this construction also cost the lives of almost 6,000 workers. However, the grandiose project was brought to life, and on October 13, 1913, in the White House, the president pressed a special button, after which a colossal explosion occurred: 4,000 kilometers from the residence of Thomas Woodrow Wilson, 20 tons of dynamite destroyed the last barrier, located near the city of Gamboa. The waters of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans were finally connected by the Panama Canal.

Speaking about the history of the construction of the Panama Canal, it is impossible not to mention that the United States, which invested huge amounts of money in the implementation of the grandiose project, decided to play it safe. Thanks to the efforts of the United States, Panama was separated from Colombia and gained independence. For such help, the authorities of the country that brings democracy to the world asked for very little: eternal ownership of the land, water space and the bottom of the Panama Canal. Which is exactly what they got.

History of the Panama Canal

The Panama Canal is a waterway through which luxury yachts and cargo ships pass daily. By the way, its dimensions allow the ship to pass into the Atlantic Ocean from the Pacific or in the opposite direction, with a width of up to 32.3 meters. The maximum length of the vessel must not exceed 294 meters. Three bridges rise above the canal, and you can watch the movement of ships along it from the window of a car or train: a railway and a highway run along the entire canal.

It would seem that the Panama Canal opens up almost limitless possibilities, but the number of ships planning to sail through it is incredibly large. It often happens that you have to wait more than a week for your turn. The record number of ships that passed through the Panama Canal in one day is “only” 65. A ship, even a small yacht, does not have the right to move through the canal on its own; it is pulled by trains specially designed for this purpose, nicknamed “mules” among sailors.

Naturally, you have to pay for such luxury as crossing from one ocean to another in just 9 (!) hours. And, I must say, pay a lot. For each vessel, depending on its size and tonnage, a special “tax” is established. In addition, there are people who value time more than banknotes: there are special auctions for them. The one who pays the highest amount will be able to skip the line and go through the canal. For example, in 2006, a huge queue of 90 ships lined up in front of the entrance to the Panama Canal. An auction took place and the tanker named Erikoussa won. Apparently, he was in a hurry to transport his cargo, since he did not regret paying almost $220,400 for an extraordinary passage through the Panama Canal, although if he had waited a week or two, he would have had to shell out only $13,400.

Panama Canal- a navigable artificial canal, 82 km long, located in Central America, on the Isthmus of Panama, in the Republic of Panama. Connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and is critical to international shipping and maritime trade. Construction of the canal began in 1881 and ended in 1914. According to statistics, about 14,000 ships pass through the canal annually, carrying about 203 million tons of cargo.

General information

Channel location

Scheme of passage of the lock complex of Lake Gatun

From the Atlantic Ocean, the Panama Canal begins at the Bahia Limon harbor. Bahía Limón). The harbor houses the deep-water port of Cristobal. Cristóbal), as well as the commercial port of Colon (eng. Colon). Then, a 3.2 km canal leads to the locks of Lake Gatun. The Gatunsky locks complex is 1.9 km long, with its help passing ships rise to the lake level to a height of 26.5 m above sea level. A separate canal, built in 2016, leads to a complex of locks Agua Clara, located parallel to the Gatunsky locks, and designed for the passage of standard vessels Neopanamax.

Ships travel 24.2 km along the artificial Gatun Lake to the natural waterway formed by the Chagres River. Chagres), flowing out of Lake Gatun. Along this river, ships travel 8.5 km and end up in an artificial valley, 12.6 km long, laid across the Culebra mountain range. Culebra). In this section, ships pass under the Centennial Bridge. Behind this section of the canal there is a single-stage Pedro Miguel lock, 1.4 km long, with which ships are lowered to 9.5 m. Behind the lock, at an altitude of 16.5 m above sea level, is the artificial Lake Miraflores, 1.7 km long.

Behind the lake there is a two-stage complex of Miraflores locks, 1.7 km long, with the help of which ships are lowered 16.5 m to sea level. Behind the locks, in the harbor, is the port of Balboa, with developed railway connections and the “Bridge of the Americas”. Not far from here is the capital of Panama - Panama City. A 13.2 km canal leads from the harbor to the Pacific Ocean, opening into the Gulf of Panama.

Channel configuration

Outline map of the Panama Canal

Due to the S-shape of the Isthmus of Panama, the Panama Canal is directed from southeast to northwest. The canal consists of two artificial lakes connected by canals and deepened river beds. There are three groups of locks along the canal. Three-chamber gateway Gatun, from the Atlantic Ocean, provides passage from Limon Bay to Lake Gatun. Double chamber gateway Miraflores and single chamber gateway Pedro Miguel from the Pacific Ocean they provide passage from Panama Bay to the canal bed. A new three-chamber airlock is located parallel to them Cocoli, for the passage of ships Neopanamax. The difference between the levels of the Panama Canal and sea level is 25.9 meters. Lake Alajuela serves as a reservoir and provides additional water supply.

The locks have the ability to ensure simultaneous oncoming traffic of ships along the canal. In practice, this opportunity is almost never used. The old lock chambers are 33.53 m wide, 304.8 m long, minimum depth is 12.55 m, and the volume of water held is 101 thousand m³. Large ships are guided through the locks by small railway locomotives called "mules". The traction force of the electric locomotive is about 11 thousand kg, the speed is 1.6 - 3.2 km/h.

Until 2014, the dimensions of ships passing through the canal should not exceed the following dimensions: length - 294.1 m, width - 32.3 m, draft - 12 m, height from the waterline to the highest point of the vessel - 57.91 m. In low water conditions, you can obtain permission to pass a vessel with a height of 62.5 m. After the reconstruction of the canal, completed in 2016, the parameters of passing vessels increased and vessels up to 49 m wide, up to 366 m long and with a draft of up to 15 m became acceptable.

Also, during the reconstruction, new lock complexes were built. Along its length, the canal is crossed three times by bridges: the “Bridge of Two Americas” road bridge, the “Century Bridge” road bridge and the “Atlantic Bridge” bridge under construction. Between the Panamanian cities of Panama and Colon there are roads and railways running along the canal route.

History of construction

Prerequisites for creation

Vasco Nunez de Balboa. He was one of the first to explore the Isthmus of Panama at the beginning of the 16th century.

The discovery of Panama occurred in 1501, the discoverer was the Spanish conquistador Rodrigo de Bastidas. His comrade-in-arms, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, was the first to cross the Isthmus of Panama, spending several weeks traveling to the Pacific Ocean. Since that time, the idea arose of connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by water, without making a long journey around South America.

In 1502, Christopher Columbus founded the settlement of Santa Maria de Belém at the mouth of the Belém River. In 1509, the Spaniards founded a colony on the coast of the Gulf of Darien, and ten years later the city of Panama was founded. From the city of Panama and the Pacific Ocean, the extracted valuables were transported to Puerto Bello, to the Atlantic Ocean, along the Royal Route - Camino real.

In 1529, one of the Spanish officers with outstanding knowledge in mathematics and geography, Alvaro de Saavedra Ceron, developed four options for digging a canal. Without having time to acquaint influential persons of the state with these projects, he died. Five years later, King Charles V of Spain ordered the exploration of Panama for the presence of a waterway across the isthmus.

In 1550, the Portuguese sailor Antonio Galvao wrote a book describing four options for digging a canal. At the beginning of the 19th century, the German Alexander Humboldt, a naturalist and traveler, developed nine projects for the construction of a canal.

By the end of the 18th century, the flow of goods along the Royal Route began to dry up and the importance of the route for Spain began to decline. However, for the United States, this path, on the contrary, was increasingly important. In 1846, a treaty of friendship, trade and navigation was concluded between the United States and New Granada. The United States guaranteed the inviolability of the Isthmus of Panama, in return receiving the right to build a railway. In 1849, gold deposits were discovered in California and people flocked to San Francisco. During the construction of the road, significant funds and 60 thousand human lives were spent. Construction of the 80 km railway was completed in 1855. Trying to recoup costs, the company excessively inflated prices for its services and, over time, the number of railway customers decreased, preferring the cheaper, albeit longer, journey around Cape Horn. As a result of this, the road across the Isthmus of Panama fell into disrepair for the second time.

Under French control. 1881-1894

The first stages of canal construction

Since 1850, the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was in force between the United States and Great Britain, according to which the parties renounced exclusive rights to build the canal. France, which was not bound by any treaty, took advantage of this provision. Entrepreneur Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal, created the Universal Interoceanic Canal Company. After Suez, he became a national hero, was elected to the French Academy of Sciences and received the title of engineer, without having any technical education. Having so many titles and unquestioned authority, he easily received permission from the Colombian government to build the canal.

The groundbreaking ceremony took place on January 1, 1880 at the mouth of the Rio Grande River. Up to 19 thousand people worked on the construction of the canal. Despite the breadth and scope of construction, only 10% of the canal was built in five years. The reasons for the delay were both unforeseen technical difficulties and a high percentage of worker illnesses. The proximity of malarial works contributed to the occurrence of outbreaks of yellow fever. The necessary medical care was not provided and the casualties among construction workers were gigantic.

The Isthmus of Panama is a complex geological area - a mountainous area covered with impenetrable jungle and deep swamps. The mountains are a jumbled mixture of hard rock and soft rock. During construction, workers passed six major geological faults and five centers of volcanic activity. Heat, high humidity, tropical rains, and floods of the Chagres River brought their negative impact. If engineers had had complete information about the geology of the isthmus, construction of the canal may not have even begun.

To ensure financing for the project, Lesseps, just as during the construction of the Suez Canal, decided to found a joint-stock company. In the case of the Suez Canal, the idea turned out to be successful and three years after the completion of the Suez Canal, shareholders began to make a profit. But in the case of the Panama Canal, the enterprise ended in complete failure.

Workers on the canal construction

In 1876, Lesseps bought the design of the engineer Vaz and the building permit. 10 million francs were spent for these purposes. According to a report compiled in 1880, the cost of building the canal was estimated at 843 million francs. Construction of the canal began on February 1, 1881. No locks or dams were envisaged; the canal was supposed to pass at sea level, and a tunnel was planned to be built in the area of ​​the pass at the junction of the Veragua and San Blas mountain ranges.

At the end of 1887, guided by the advice of the young engineer Philippe Bunod-Varilla, Lesseps agreed to changes to the project, and it was decided to build a canal with locks. The highest level of the canal was supposed to be 52 meters, taking these circumstances into account, the project required revision. For further work on the project, the famous engineer Gustave Eiffel was called from Paris, who had just finished work on his tower. However, despite all efforts, work on the construction of the canal fell into disrepair and, due to lack of funding, was suspended at around 72 meters.

Trying to improve the financial condition of the project, in 1885 Lesseps and his colleagues decided to issue long-term winning loan bonds. Private companies did not have the right to issue such a loan; the consent of the government and parliament was required. The company, by bribing influential people, was able to obtain permission to issue bonds. About 4 million francs were spent on bribes, permission was received three years after the company’s request. Meanwhile, work on the isthmus was getting worse and worse, and the financial problems could no longer be hidden. Lesseps himself had already lost his former energy, and moral and physical fatigue was taking its toll.

Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez and Panama Canals

To stay afloat, the Panama Company issued two more loans that did not require government approval. By raising the rate on them to 10%, she tried to make the shares more attractive. In April 1888, deputies approved the loan, which was also supported by the president and the Senate. The loan limit increased to 720 million francs. However, the subscription to the bonds that had begun ended in failure - of the 254 million francs collected, 31 million were bank costs; in addition, the law required the creation of a reserve fund to guarantee the payment of winnings and the redemption of bonds. Lesseps and his son traveled around the country giving lectures, trying to avoid bankruptcy, promising timely completion of construction and associated financial improvement.

Deputies did not support the bill on preferential debt repayment and the company went bankrupt. On February 4, 1889, the Civil Court officially declared the Panama Company bankrupt and appointed a liquidator. At this point, after eight years of construction, the canal was 40% complete. By issuing bonds, 1.3 billion francs were collected, of which 104 million were paid to banks as commissions and 250 million were paid as interest on bonds and for their redemption. The contractors were paid 450 million francs, but the entire scope of work indicated in the estimate was not completed. During the liquidation process, it turned out that the company had no liquid assets left. The number of investors who lost their investments after the company's bankruptcy was close to 800 thousand people.

In 1892, information leaked to the press about the massive bribery of politicians in order to push through a law authorizing a loan for the Panama Company, which in turn carefully concealed the real state of affairs. 510 members of parliament who received bribes by bank check were charged with accepting bribes.

A trial was held of the leadership of the Panama Company - father and son Lesseps, Gustave Eiffel, several company managers and the former minister of public works. All defendants received various prison sentences, in particular G. Eiffel was sentenced to two years in prison and a fine of 20 thousand francs. Four months later, by decision of the cassation court, the convicts were released. Ferdinand de Lesseps, due to his venerable age and services to his countries, was spared imprisonment. However, the emotional breakdown resulted in mental breakdown and insanity. In December 1894 he died at the age of 89. His son, Charles, lived until 1923 and was able to see the constructed canal in action.

After analyzing the construction of the canal, financiers made the assumption that investors could get their money back if construction of the canal continued. In 1894, a new Panama Canal Company was created in France, which continued work on the canal, but there was no significant progress in construction.

Under US control. 1904-1920

Transportation of selected soil

The New Panama Canal Company, organized in 1894 in France, negotiated with the US government to sell the enterprise. Having reached an agreement, the parties signed an agreement on February 13, 1903. For $40 million, the Company ceded to the US government the right to build the canal and the existing equipment. The Americans did not use private capital, but provided government funding for the construction. The canal design has undergone significant changes - the choice fell on the option of a canal with locks.

The latest advances in the field of medicine were used - by that time it had become clear that mosquitoes and mosquitoes were carriers of yellow fever and malaria, so unprecedented measures were taken on the construction site - in order to destroy insects, swamps were drained and plants were cut down. Sanitary and hygienic preventive measures were taken throughout the entire construction of the canal.

Having started construction, the United States decided to change the conditions under which work was carried out in Colombia. According to the new agreement, a strip of land 16 km wide passed from Colombian jurisdiction to the United States, and the cities of Colon and Panama were declared free ports. In return, Colombia received a one-time payment of $10 million and $250 thousand annually. The treaty was signed on March 18, 1903 and submitted for ratification in the parliaments of both states.

The Colombian Senate did not vote to ratify the treaty, demanding its sovereignty over the canal zone and greater compensation. In turn, the United States supported separatists determined to separate Panama from Colombia, which caused the Panamanian Revolution, which resulted in the formation of the new state of Panama with the capital of the same name.

Manual sampling of soil from the future channel

US President T. Roosevelt ordered warships in Colon and Acapulco to prevent Colombian troops from landing on the shores of Panama. The Panamanian Railway also refused to transport Colombian soldiers. A week after the start of the revolution, the United States recognized the independence of Panama and on November 18, 1903, concluded a new treaty with the young republic. According to the treaty, on February 26, 1904, the territory adjacent to the canal, with an area of ​​1,422 km² and a population of 14,470 people, was annexed by the United States and named the “Panama Canal Zone”.

Colombia did not risk open confrontation with the United States and admitted defeat. Construction of the canal resumed and continued with US forces. During construction under the direction of the United States, 5,600 of the 70,000 workers killed. Construction lasted ten years and cost $380 million.

Culebra notch

The Culebra excavation, in terms of the totality of the efforts made, the people involved and the finances involved, became a unique achievement of the Panama Canal. This work involved the passage of many kilometers between Gamboa, on the Chagres River, through the Continental Divide mountain range, south to Pedro Miguel. The lowest point of the pass was between Golden Hill and Contractors' Hill at an altitude of about 100 meters above sea level.

To destroy the rock, holes were drilled into which explosives were then placed. The crushed soil resulting from the explosions was extracted by steam excavators and loaded onto railcars for transportation to the dump site. The variety of construction equipment was much richer than during the “French” construction. The Americans used steam shovels, unloaders, spreaders, and track movers. The French only had excavators of much less power.

Steam shovel during construction of the Panama Canal

The soil was unloaded according to the following system: the unloader’s three-ton plow was placed on the last platform, and a cable ran from it to a winch located on the first platform. When activated, the winch began to pull the plow towards itself, unloading the train of 20 platforms in 10 minutes. One of these vehicles set a record for unloading, unloading 18 trains with a total length of over 5.5 km and a soil volume of 5,780 m³ in 8 hours. Twenty such unloaders with a staff of 120 people replaced the manual labor of 5,666 people.

Another invention during the construction of the Panama Canal was the spoiler. It was a railcar powered by compressed air, and on both sides there were dumps that changed the height if necessary. In the lower position, they covered several meters on each side of the railway track. As it moved forward, the spreader pushed and leveled the rock left by the unloader. This mechanism replaced 5-6 thousand workers.

The track mover was also invented during the construction of the canal, by the general manager of the construction in 1905-1907, William Bjord. A crane-like mechanism lifted an entire section of the railway, with rails and sleepers, and moved it in the required direction, more than two meters at a time. Considering that the tracks had to be constantly moved, following the progress of work, the importance of this invention could hardly be overestimated. Operated by 12 workers, this machine moved more than 1 km of track in a day, saving the labor of 600 workers.

Volumetric four-sided dump trucks from the company were also used to remove soil. Western and Oliver. Since the heavy clay stuck to the walls, the trolleys were used only to transport stones from the excavation to the Gatun Dam. Millions of cubic meters of excavated soil were used both for the Gatun Dam and to connect the islands of Naos, Perico, Culebra and Flamenco in Panama Bay to build a breakwater. The area between the mainland and Naos Island became particularly difficult - in this area the bottom was soft and tons of stones simply disappeared into it. One day the railway and the piles were washed away by the sea, which required their re-construction. As a result, 10 times more material was spent on bulk work in this area than planned.

Start of construction of concrete structures

The excavated soil was used to fill 2 km² of the Pacific Ocean, creating an area for the construction of the city of Balboa and the military fort of Amador. The excavated soil was also used to build mounds in the jungle, the largest of which Tabernilla, contained over 10 million m³. The excavated soil was also used for the Gatun Dam. At the time of construction, the Gatun Dam on the Atlantic Ocean side was the largest dam, and the Gatun Lake formed by it was the largest artificial reservoir on Earth. There are two dams built on the Pacific side - the Miraflores Spillway and, built in the 1930s, the Madden Dam, higher up the Chagres River. After the completion of the Gatun Dam, the Chagres River valley, between Gamboa and Gatun, became Lake Gatun. After the completion of the Culebra Cut, the lake expanded to the Pedro Miguel Locks, across the Continental Divide.

From the beginning of construction to the present day, there remains a danger of earth landslides in the area of ​​the Culebra excavation. The first landslide occurred near Cucarachi on October 4, 1907, collapsing hundreds of cubic meters of earth into the excavation. Until now, the Cucarachi area is considered a particularly landslide-prone area.

In 1908, in addition to excavation work, it was necessary to move the Panama Railway, in connection with the future formation of Lake Gatun. About 64 km of the track were re-laid. Work on laying the railway ended on May 25, 1912, funding for the work amounted to about $9 million.

In 1913, the construction of three giant locks was completed; the walls of the lock chambers reached the height of a 6-story building. More than 1.5 million m³ of concrete were used for each series of locks: Gatun, Pedro Miguel and Miraflores.

On August 15, 1914, the first ship, the Cristobal, passed through the Panama Canal; it took the ship 9 hours to pass through the canal, and the distance saved was 8 thousand km. A landslide in 1914 prevented the canal from officially opening that year, so the official opening of the canal took place on June 12, 1920.

To strengthen the defense of the canal, the US government acquired the islands of Margarita, Perque, Naos, Culebra and Flamenco from Panama. For 25 million dollars, the islands of St. John, St. Croix and St. Thomas were purchased from Denmark, in 1928 the Corn (Corn) Islands were purchased from Nicaragua, and the islands of Roncador and Quitasueño were purchased from Colombia.

Channel modernization. 2009-2016.

A dredging vessel works to widen the Panama Canal in Paraiso, August 31, 2007.

In October 2006, a referendum was held in Panama on the expansion of the Panama Canal. The project received support from 79% of the population. The Chinese business structures that manage the channel had a great influence on the adoption of the plan. After modernization was completed in 2016, the canal was able to accommodate oil tankers with a displacement of more than 130 thousand tons. This made it possible to significantly reduce the distance for delivering Venezuelan oil to China. By that time, Venezuela planned to increase oil supplies to China to 1 million barrels per day.

In July 2008, the tender for the construction of the third group of locks was won by a consortium Grupo Unidos por el Canal, the start of work is scheduled for August 25, 2009. According to the agreement, the cost of the work was to be 3.118 billion dollars, and by mid-2014, work to modernize the canal should be completed.

In October 2008, negotiations were held with global creditors to raise money for the expansion of the Panama Canal. The Japan Bank for International Cooperation expressed its readiness to allocate funds in the amount of $800 million; European Investment Bank - $500 million; Inter-American Development Bank - $400 million; Andean Development Corporation and International Finance Corporation - $300 million each.

First stage. year 2012.

After completion of work. 2017

Scheme

During the modernization, work was carried out to deepen the bottom and wider locks were built. The canal's maximum throughput increased to 18.8 thousand vessels per year, and cargo turnover increased to 1,700 million m³ of various cargoes per year. Vessels with a displacement of up to 170 thousand tons were able to pass through the canal. $5.25 billion was spent on reconstruction of the canal. More than 30 thousand workers were involved in the modernization of the canal, seven people died during the work. The planned profit to the Panama budget from the work of the canal is $2.5 billion per year, by 2025 the profit will increase to $4.3 billion.

The consecration ceremony of the new sluice gates took place on June 26, 2016. The commissioning ceremony for the new channel was attended by representatives from Taiwan, Chile, Costa Rica, Honduras, Paraguay and the Dominican Republic. Panama President Juan Carlos Varela called the event significant for his country.

After the expansion of the channel to replace the standard Panamax, the standard has arrived Neopanamax, which includes ships with a deadweight of up to 120 thousand tons, which is 50% more than standard ships Panamax.

Story

Early 20th century

One of the first ships to transit the Panama Canal

During World War I, the Panama Canal was under heavy security. In 1916, construction of a submarine base began in Coco Solo, near the canal. In 1917, the base could already serve a significant number of submarines. Despite all the fears, German warships did not approach the canal and did not carry out any operations in its area.

Presidential elections were held in Panama in 1908, 1912 and 1918. Each time the elections were held under the supervision of the US military.

In 1917, the United States entered the First World War, following this event, Panama also declared war on Germany, but troops did not take part in the fighting.

In 1918, US troops occupied the city of Panama and the city of Colon “to maintain order,” and in 1918-1920 they occupied the province of Chirique.

In 1921, Costa Rica made territorial claims against Panama and attempted to occupy disputed territories on the Pacific coast under the pretext of an international arbitration decision in 1914. The United States intervened in the situation and Costa Rican army units left Panama.

In 1936, the US government signed a new treaty with Panama, which removed some restrictions on Panama's sovereignty and increased the annual rent for the canal.

The Second World War

By the mid-20th century, it became clear that a submarine base alone was not enough to guard the canal. The Secretary of the Navy appointed a commission to determine the site for a new base in the Virgin Islands.

In May 1941, three R-class submarines from the 32nd Division arrived at the St. Thomas base. In the autumn of the same year, several more boats of the 7th squadron, based in Coco Solo, arrived at the base. Three R-class submarines from the 32nd Boat Division arrived at the base at St. Thomas in May 1941, and in the fall several boats from the 7th Squadron, stationed at Coco Solo, arrived. After the United States entered World War II, all submarine operations around the Virgin Islands were carried out from the base on St. Thomas.

At the very beginning of World War II, several German submarines penetrated the coast of Mosquito Bay, and German submarines also operated in the Caribbean Sea.

In March 1942, boats from St. Thomas carried out reconnaissance and surveillance of the French cruiser Jeanne d'Arc, located in Guadeloupe and aircraft carrier Bearn, off the island of Martinique. The submarines were always in the area of ​​Martinique and Guadeloupe. The French authorities in the West Indies were loyal to the Vichy government and were under suspicion of connections with the Germans. After the establishment of diplomatic relations between the United States and the Vichy government, the latter promised that the ships would not leave their home bases. After this, surveillance of the French ships was stopped.

In the southern Caribbean, submarines from the Coco Solo base operated in the area of ​​the San Andrews Islands, Old Providence Island, and other islands north of Panama. Despite reports of sightings of German submarines, no contact with them was noted during patrols. Following an intelligence report that there were no German boats in the area, patrolling in the area ceased in September 1942.

After the attack of Japanese carrier-based aircraft on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the Americans had to fight a war on two oceans and the question arose of protecting the Panama Canal from the Pacific Ocean. Submarine forces have organized a patrol line stretching 800 miles from Balboa. The boats went to sea for about a month, 22 days of which they spent directly in position. The security was organized in December 1941 and lasted until the end of 1942. During this time, not a single Japanese ship was discovered.

In the spring of 1942, construction began on the Balboa submarine base. Until this point, boats based in Coco Solo had to pass through the canal to conduct patrols in the Pacific Ocean. The establishment of the base would ensure a good supply of boats in the Pacific Ocean and would facilitate the creation of a training center for boat personnel for operations in the Pacific Ocean. Until the end of 1943, the base was never completed, but there was no point in speeding up construction - the situation remained calm. At the end of 1942, submarine operations in the Panama Canal area ceased. In the Caribbean Sea, American anti-submarine ships fought with German submarines. No Japanese submarines appeared from the Pacific Ocean. By this time, air and surface anti-submarine forces were already well organized, so German submarines appeared less and less often off the coast of America.

In August 1945, Japan developed a plan to bomb the Panama Canal, but this plan was never implemented.

Recent history

Panama Canal Locks

In 1955, the governments of Panama and the United States entered into a new treaty regarding the status of the United States in Panama, but the United States retained control of the canal zone.

In November 1959, a Panamanian demonstration was shot by US troops. Panamanians tried to raise the Panama flag in the Panama Canal area.

On January 9, 1964, US military personnel opened fire on a protest demonstration near the borders of the Panama Canal Zone, the event led to an increase in anti-American sentiment in Panama, and mass anti-American protests began among the population of Panama.

On September 7, 1977, an agreement was signed in Washington between Panamanian President Torrijos and US President John Carter The Panama Canal Treaty, according to which the United States must transfer control of the Panama Canal to the Government of Panama on December 31, 1999.

in 1984, in connection with the demand of the government of Panama, the United States closed the “School of the Americas” - a military educational enterprise in the Panama Canal Zone, where military and police personnel were trained for the countries of Central and Latin America.

On December 20, 1989, the US military operation against Panama began. According to official statements by the US government, the goals of the operation were to protect American citizens living in Panama, remove General Noriega and bring him to trial as the leader of the drug mafia. The decision to carry out Operation Right Cause Just Cause) adopted by US President George W. Bush, December 17-18, 1989. The operation began on December 20 at 2 a.m., and by the morning all the main points of resistance were suppressed, in some places there was still resistance, but by the morning of December 25 all the fighting was over.

The Panama Canal was controlled by the United States until December 31, 1999, after which it was transferred to the Panamanian government.

Since December 31, 1999, the canal has been operated by a Panamanian state-owned company - Autoridad del Canal de Panama. Thanks to the Panama Canal, a new standard in shipbuilding emerged - Panamax. This standard designates the maximum size of a vessel that can navigate the canal. The main users of the channel are the USA, China, Japan, South Korea and Chile. The majority of cargo transported is grain; the volume of transportation is lower for oil and petroleum products; the volume of container transportation is dynamically developing.

The cost of passage through the canal is $2.57 per net ton of a loaded vessel and $0.86 per ton of an empty one. Pre-registration is required to pass through the channel, but if desired, during the auction, you can purchase the right of priority passage through the channel. In May 2011 the liner Disney Magic acquired such a right for 331.2 thousand dollars.

Records

In February 2017, a record was set for daily trade turnover - 1.18 million tons of cargo passed through the canal. In December 2016 and January 2017, records were set for monthly trade turnover - 35.4 and 36.1 million tons were transported through the canal, respectively.

On May 24, 2017, a new record was set in the Panama Canal - for the first time in the history of the canal, a container ship passed through it OOCL France, with a cargo capacity of 13,208 TEU. On August 22, 2017, this record was broken by a container ship CMA CGM Theodore Roosevelt, with a capacity of 14,855 TEU.

In 2006, for passage through the Panama Canal of a cruise ship Norwegian Star paid $208,653.16. A week after the completion of the canal reconstruction, in the summer of 2016, for the passage of a container ship under the Hong Kong flag Mol Benefactor 829.4 thousand US dollars were paid.

The smallest fee - $0.36 - was paid by adventurer Richard Halliburton, who swam across the canal through the locks in 1928.

International treaties related to the Panama Canal

1846

Historical map of the Nicaraguan and Panama Canal projects

In 1846, in the capital of New Grenada, Bogotá, a treaty of peace, friendship, navigation and trade was concluded between the United States and New Grenada. This treaty, in Article 35, separately stipulated the construction of an interoceanic transit route through the Isthmus of Panama. According to the treaty, the United States received equal rights with Grenada to operate this route, be it a canal or a railroad. In exchange for the sovereignty of New Grenada over the isthmus, the United States received a guarantee that this route would always be open to them. The American-Colombian Treaty was the first in a series of subsequent conventions in connection with various projects of the inter-oceanic route through Central America and the struggle of the United States with France and Great Britain on this issue. At the same time, Great Britain and France were negotiating with Nicaragua about the construction of such an interoceanic route.

1849

In 1849, a US representative, without having the authority of the government to do so, signed a convention in Guatemala with the government of Nicaragua, according to which the US received the exclusive right to build a transport route between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Along this route, the United States could build fortifications and maintain troops, and, if necessary, block the channel for enemy military and merchant ships.

However, fearing complications in relations with Great Britain, this treaty was not ratified in the United States. Great Britain also had plans to build a canal in Nicaragua under its control and took measures to gain control of ports that could become the final destinations of the future canal.

The Convention also contained a clause that similar rights could be granted to other states after concluding similar treaties with Nicaragua.

1850 - 1868

Topographic map of the Panama Canal Zone. 1923

Against the backdrop of growing tensions between the United States and Great Britain, in 1850, at the initiative of the United States, the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was concluded. The agreement determined the international legal status of the future channel. It excluded the possibility of subordinating the channel to absolute control for each of the contracting states. The agreement provided for equal conditions for using the channel both for citizens of the USA and Great Britain, and for citizens of other states that signed the agreement.

In accordance with the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, the United States entered into an agreement with Nicaragua in 1867, under which it received the right of free transit, pledging, in turn, to protect the neutrality of the canal and the sovereignty of Nicaragua. A clause of identical content was included in the 1860 trade agreement between Nicaragua and Great Britain.

The main provisions of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty were repeated in agreements concluded with Nicaragua by Spain in 1850, France in 1859 and Italy in 1868.

1869-1870

In addition to the 1946 US-Columbia Treaty, in 1869 and 1870 the United States attempted to negotiate an agreement with Colombia, which emphasized that only US and Colombian warships could pass through the canal and that enemy ships should not be allowed into the canal.

1878 - 1883

Caricature dedicated to the French selling the channel to the Americans

In 1878, the Colombian government authorized the construction of the canal to a French joint-stock company under the direction of the engineer Lesseps, who had previously designed and built the Suez Canal. The signed concession provided for the neutrality of the canal, the free passage of merchant ships even during war, the unhindered passage of warships flying the US or Colombian flag at any time, and the restriction of the passage of warships of other countries during war. However, the passage of warships of other states could be carried out if an agreement was concluded with Colombia providing for such an action.

In the United States, fears arose that this would increase the influence of states outside mainland America on the Panama Canal, so in 1881, US ambassadors in London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna declared that the neutrality of the Panama Canal was ensured by the United States and any attempts to establish additional guarantees of such neutrality , will be viewed in the US as an unfriendly action.

In response, Britain reminded the US government of the provisions of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850. Then, diplomatic correspondence on this issue was carried out between these countries until 1883, but no results were achieved.

1899-1901

In 1888, the French community involved in the construction of the canal went bankrupt and construction ceased. After the war with Spain, the United States returned to the canal issue in 1899. Taking into account the experience of the past war, the United States believed that the channel should be under their absolute control. In 1900, the Anglo-American agreement on the Panama Canal was signed, but it was not ratified by the US Parliament. In 1901, the Gay-Pounsfoot Treaty was concluded, which received approval in the parliaments of the United States and Great Britain.

The signing of this treaty canceled the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and recognized the right of the United States to build the canal, its operation and management, as well as to ensure security along the entire length of the canal. The right of passage for all merchant and military ships under any flag was also confirmed, but the order for the passage of ships in wartime was not included in the treaty.

1902 - 1904

The length of the Panama Canal from deep to deep water is 81.6 km, the minimum width is 150 m, the guaranteed depth is 12 m, the size of the chambers of the paired locks is 305 by 33.5 m. The watershed section of the canal, 51 km long, lies at an altitude of 25.9 m above sea level Entering from the Atlantic Ocean, ships rise through the three steps of the Gatun Locks into the artificial Lake Gatun, which is formed by the Gatun Dam across the Chagres River and lies at an altitude of 25.9 m above sea level. In 1935, the reservoir's capacity was increased by the construction of the Madden Dam on the upper Chagres, creating Lake Madden. From Lake Gatun, ships pass the 12-kilometer Culebra Notch, descend through the Pedro Miguel locks into Lake Miraflores (16 m above sea level), pass the two-stage Miraflores locks and exit into the Gulf of Panama. The average transit time for ships through the canal is 7–8 hours. Two-way traffic is not possible only for large-tonnage vessels in the Culebra excavation section.

The first European to cross the Isthmus of Panama was the Spanish conquistador Vasco Nunez de Balboa in 1513. During the colonial era, plans to build a transoceanic canal were repeatedly raised and never realized. US interest in the idea of ​​​​building a canal became apparent during the California gold rush of 1848. In 1850, the US and Great Britain entered into the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, according to which the parties refused to acquire exclusive rights to the future canal and pledged to guarantee its neutrality.

In 1878, France received from Colombia, which until 1903 included Panama, a 99-year concession for the construction of the canal. In 1879, a company was created under the leadership of Ferdinand Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal, and work began two years later. However, in 1887 the company went bankrupt due to high prices, financial scams and high worker mortality. At that time, the United States was exploring the possibility of laying a transoceanic canal through the territory of Nicaragua, and three years later a commission specially created in 1899 came to the conclusion that this option was more rational. The United States gained freedom of action in 1901 when it concluded the Hay-Pouncefort Treaty with Great Britain, which annulled the previous treaty. The French company was afraid of losing all its investments if a canal was built through Nicaragua and offered the United States all the rights and its property in Panama for $40 million. The North American Commission recommended acceptance of these terms, and in 1902 Congress approved the project and began negotiations with Colombia.

In 1903, under President Roosevelt, the Hay-Herran Treaty on the construction of the canal was signed between the United States and Colombia. However, the Colombian Senate refused to ratify the treaty. Then the United States began to support the Panamanian separatists and did not allow Colombian troops to land on the isthmus to suppress the uprising. As a result, on November 3, 1903, Panama declared its secession from Colombia and its independence as a separate state.

Already on November 18, 1903, the United States and the government of the newly formed republic signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilly Treaty, according to which the North Americans received full control over a 10-mile wide zone running in a strip across the entire isthmus. The United States paid Panama $10 million and pledged to pay another $250,000 annually. At the same time, Panama actually became a US protectorate. In 1914, the United States signed the Thompson-Urrutia Treaty with Colombia, which ensured Colombia's recognition of Panama's independence for certain compensation. The US Senate delayed ratification of the treaty, and only in 1921 Colombia received the promised $25 million.

In 1905, an expert council appointed by President Roosevelt recommended building a lock-free canal, but Congress adopted the lock canal project. At first, the work was carried out under the direction of civil engineers, but from 1907 the construction was taken over by the War Ministry. He also had medical control over sanitary conditions and the treatment of tropical diseases. The French, who began construction, excavated 23 million cubic meters. m of land along the canal route; North Americans still had 208 million cubic meters left to extract. m. The first ship passed through the Isthmus of Panama on August 15, 1914, but the canal actually went into operation after the official opening on June 12, 1920. According to government sources, the construction of the canal cost $380 million.

Panama Canal Zone.

The Hay-Bunau-Varilly Treaty of 1903 gave the United States possession of a total of 1,432 sq. km of Panamanian territory, including lakes Gatun and Alajuela, later renamed Lake Madden. Until 1979, the management of the canal zone was closely linked with the administration of the canal itself. The zone's governor was a general in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the zone had its own police and fire departments, courts, post office, medical facilities, and English-language schools.

Panama Canal in international relations.

In diplomatic relations between Panama and the United States, problems related to the canal zone have always come to the fore. Panama sought to expand its participation in the management of the canal, increase its share of profits, and protested against discrimination against Panamanians working in the zone. Under the Hull-Alfaro Treaty of 1936, some enslaving provisions of the 1903 Treaty were canceled and revised. In particular, the United States renounced the right of military intervention in the internal affairs of Panama and the monopoly on communications across the isthmus, granted the Panamanians the right to trade in the canal zone and increased annual payments to 430 thousand dollars.

The Eisenhower-Remona Treaty of 1955 transferred US property outside the canal zone to Panama worth $24 million, increased the annual rent to $1 million 930 thousand, obligated the US to build a bridge across the canal (completed in 1962) and establish water supply to the cities of Colon and Panama , deprived North American entrepreneurs of a number of benefits, limited discrimination against Panamanians employed in the Canal Zone, and gave the Panamanian government the right to levy taxes on its citizens working in the zone and on foreigners (except Americans) working outside the zone.

In 1959, clashes between Panamanians and US police occurred in the canal zone. After negotiations in 1960, the United States agreed to hang the flags of two states - the United States and Panama - on the border of the zone. In further agreements in 1962, the United States allowed the Panamanian flag to be flown through the zone and agreed to continue discussions on other issues, including equal pay for Americans and Panamanians in the Canal Zone. In January 1964, after American students refused to fly the Panamanian flag along with their flag, further riots occurred that led to the severance of diplomatic relations. Panama again demanded to reconsider the terms of the 1903 treaty. In April 1964, diplomatic relations were restored.

In 1967, a draft treaty was developed on Panama's sovereignty over the canal zone and the creation of a unified canal management, but in 1970 Panama rejected this project. Negotiations resumed in 1971 led to the signing of two agreements in 1977, according to which on October 1, 1979 the canal zone came under the jurisdiction of Panama, and by 2000 the United States pledged to transfer the canal itself to Panama. However, the North Americans reserved the right to military intervention if necessary to protect the canal and maintain its neutrality. According to the agreements, a Panama Canal Commission was created to operate the canal. Until 1990, the Commission was headed by a US citizen, appointed by the US President; after 1990 and until the transfer of the channel in December 1999, it was headed by a Panamanian citizen, also appointed by the US President.