Black Sea. Oceanographic studies of the Black Sea Marine atlas of the Black and Mediterranean seas
Under various wind conditions.
This manual can be used by navigators to select the most advantageous navigation routes, in design and construction organizations, in research institutions when solving various problems that require knowledge of the regime and taking into account currents, as well as in educational practice when training specialists in the field of hydrometeorology.
The atlas data cannot be used to take into account currents when sailing by dead reckoning, as well as to assess the regime of currents in coastal areas of the sea with depths less than 200 m.
When compiling the atlas, materials from oceanographic expeditions for the period 1951-1977 were used, as well as previously published manuals and results published in last years works and articles on the regime of currents and winds of the Black Sea.
The atlas was compiled at the 453 Hydrometeorological Center (453 HMC) under the general leadership of the Head of the Hydrographic Service of the Red Banner Black Sea Fleet, Candidate of Naval Sciences Rear Admiral L. I. Mitin and the Head of the Hydrometeorological Service of the Black Sea Fleet, Captain 1st Rank Engineer O. N. Bogatko, with the participation head of the hydrometeorological detachment, captain 2nd rank engineer V.N. Stetyukhno and captain 1st rank reserve engineer |V. I. Ryndenkova|.
The development of methodological issues, management of the processing and synthesis of materials, as well as the analysis of the results obtained were carried out by senior engineers of the 453rd GMC, retired captain 1st rank
| R.I. Ivanov), N.I. Zhidkova and retired lieutenant colonel-engineer K.V. ) Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences S. G. Boguslavsky.
Processing, generalization and design of materials were carried out by employees of the 453rd State Medical Center and MHI of the USSR Academy of Sciences with the participation of senior researcher at the Southern Branch of the Institute of Oceanology of the USSR Academy of Sciences V. B. Titov.
The atlas was edited and prepared for publication in the 280th Central Cartographic Order of the Red Banner of Labor production of the Navy by M. A. Kislova.
Please report all reviews, suggestions and comments on the atlas to the Main Directorate of Navigation and Oceanography of the USSR Ministry of Defense at the address: 199034, city. Leningrad, B-34.
Explanations for the atlas
Highest current speeds
Unstable wind direction and constant currents
Type No. 1, schemes No. 11 - 14
Northeast wind and wind currents
Types No. 21-27, schemes No. 21-27
East wind and wind currents
Types No. 31-35, schemes No. 31-35
Southeast wind and wind currents
Types No. 41-44, schemes No. 41-44
South and southwest winds and wind currents
Types No. 51-58, schemes No. 51-58
West wind and wind currents
Types No. 61-65, schemes No. 61-65
Northwest wind and wind currents
Types No. 71-75, schemes No. 71-75
North wind and wind currents
Types No. 81-86, schemes No. 81-86
Cyclonic wind and wind currents
Types No. 91-92, schemes No. 91-92
Since 1774, Crimea, separated from the Turkish Empire, became available for research. In 1782, V. Zuev crossed the Steppe Crimea from Perekop to the city of Karasubazar (now Belogorsk) at the northern foot Crimean mountains. WITH Mountain Crimea Zuev took a quick look, visiting only some areas; He summarized the basic information from the words of people who had “experienced there.” But he was the first to draw attention to the asymmetry of the advanced part of the Crimean Mountains (the so-called cuesta): “The layers of the main mountains correspond... to the advanced ones and rise from the north by noon, rising at an angle of 17 degrees from the horizon.” And he noted that most of the Crimean rivers originate on the northern slopes of the mountains, and the Chatyrdag massif is a watershed: to the east of it the rivers flow into the Sivash, to the west into the Black Sea.
In 1783, Crimea was included in Russia and Karl Ivanovich Gablitz was appointed vice-governor of the new Tauride province. For two years he explored the peninsula in detail and compiled its first scientific description. Gablitz correctly distinguished three orographic regions there: “flat”, mountainous and flat-hilly Kerch Peninsula with steep and high banks. He was the first to propose a three-part division of the Crimean Mountains, now generally accepted: the Northern, or External (according to the Table, “advanced”) ridges, the Middle, or Internal, and the Southern, or Main. The southern slopes are steeper than the northern ones, and there are open valleys between the mountains. South Ridge in the Chatyrdag area it is divided into two parts by a transverse valley; in the ridge he discovered traces of volcanic activity. K. Gablitz explored the Crimean rivers, noting their large slopes and the presence of waterfalls. He also described minerals, including Kerch iron ores.
Immediately after the annexation of Crimea, by order of Catherine II, a frigate under the command of military sailor Ivan Mikhailovich Bersenev headed to the peninsula to select a harbor near southwestern coast. Having inspected the bay near the village of Akhtiar in April 1783 (in ancient times the city of Chersonesus-Tavrichesky was located here, see Vol. 1, Chapter 5), I. Bersenev recommended it as a base for the ships of the future Black Sea Fleet. Soon a fortress and a port were founded on its shores, which in 1784 were named by Catherine II as the “Majestic City” (Sevastopol). In the same year, I. Bersenev, commanding four ships, described the western and southern coasts of Crimea from Cape Tarkhankut to Kerch Strait(500 km). In 1786 and 1787 K. Gablitz published two works about Crimea, adding to the second four maps of the south of European Russia. On them, the outlines of the peninsula are close to modern ones: probably K. Tablits used materials from I. Bersenev.
In 1793-1795 Crimea was visited by P. S. Pallas. He described the Southern Ridge in much more detail than K. Tables and identified the highest part of it - from Balaklava to Alushta. Highest point he considered the ridge to be Chatyrdag (1527 m; now Roman-Kosh, 1545 m). Then P.S. Pallas crossed to the Taman Peninsula and gave his first detailed description: “Taman represents a torn terrain, covered with hills and planes... Various branches of the Kuban and many bays and lowlands covered with water make Taman real island. The central [its] part... between the Kuban and Temryuk estuaries is more elevated...” P. S. Pallas described the mud hills of Taman and noted the presence of oil in some.
The work of I. Bersenev was continued by the English sailor in the British and then Russian service, Joseph (Iosif Iosifovich) Billings, a participant in D. Cook’s third circumnavigation of the world. After the completion of the North-Eastern expedition (see Chapter 17), in the summer of 1797, I. Billings carried out hydrographic work off the Taman Peninsula, off the southern and western coasts of Crimea. And in the summer of next year he described the northwestern coast of Crimea and Black Sea coast European Russia from Tarkhankut to the Dniester estuary and back - a section about 1 thousand km long, which in those days was of paramount importance for the Russian state. In 1799, I. Billings published the Atlas of the Black Sea; the maps he compiled were significantly superior to their predecessors in accuracy, as they were based on numerous astronomical points he identified.
The coastal zone is dominated by coarse-grained bottom sediments: pebbles, gravel, sands; As they move away from the coast, they are quickly replaced by fine-grained sands and silts. In the northwestern part, shell beds and modern shell banks inhabited by mussels, oysters and other shellfish are widespread. The slope and bed of the depression are characterized by pelitic silts, the carbonate content of which increases towards the center of the sea (in places exceeding 50%); Coccolithophores play a significant role in carbonate material. In the southeastern part of the sea, at depths of up to 2000 m, deposits of silt and sand carried by turbidity currents are found.
According to character wind activity over the sea, strong waves most often develop in autumn and winter in the northwestern, northeastern and central parts of the sea. Depending on the wind speed and wave acceleration length, waves with a height of 1–3 m predominate in the sea. In open areas, maximum wave heights reach 7 m, and in very strong storms they can be higher. The southern part of the sea is the calmest; strong waves are rarely observed here, and there are almost no waves over 3 m high.
Seasonal changes in sea level are created mainly due to intra-annual differences in river flow input. Therefore, in the warm season the level is higher, in the cold season it is lower. The magnitude of these fluctuations varies and is most significant in areas influenced by continental runoff, where it reaches 30–40 cm.
The greatest magnitude in the Black Sea is caused by surge level fluctuations associated with the influence of stable winds. They are especially often observed in autumn-winter in the western and northwestern parts of the sea, where they can exceed 1 m. In the west, strong surges are caused by easterly and northeasterly winds, and in the northwest - southeasterly ones. Strong surges in these parts of the sea occur during northwestern winds. Along the Crimean and Caucasian coasts, surges and surges rarely exceed 30–40 cm. Usually their duration is 3–5 days, but sometimes it can be longer.
In the Black Sea, seiche level fluctuations up to 10 cm in height are often observed. Seiches with periods of 2–6 hours are excited by wind, and 12-hour seiches are associated with tides. The Black Sea is characterized by irregular semidiurnal tides.
Ice formation usually begins in mid-December, with maximum ice expansion observed in February. The duration of the ice period varies greatly: from 130 days in very severe winters, to 40 days in mild ones. The ice thickness on average does not exceed 15 cm, in severe winters it reaches 50 cm.
Ice is formed annually only in a narrow coastal strip in the northwestern part of the sea. Even in severe winters it covers less than 5%, and in moderate winters - 0.5–1.5% of the sea area. In very severe winters, the fast ice along the western coast extends to Constanta, and the floating ice is carried to the Bosphorus.
Water circulation throughout the year it has a cyclonic character with cyclonic gyres in the western and eastern parts of the sea and the main Black Sea current bending around them along the coastal shore.
The main Black Sea current and cyclonic gyres are most clearly expressed in winter and summer. In spring and autumn, water circulation becomes weaker and more complex in structure.
The general circulation of sea waters is unidirectional to a depth of about 1000 m. In deeper layers it is very weak, and in general it is difficult to talk about its nature.
An important feature of the main Black Sea current is meandering, which can lead to the formation of isolated eddies that differ in salinity temperature from the surrounding waters. The size of the eddies reaches 40–90 km. The phenomenon of vortex formation is essential for water exchange not only in the upper, but also in the deep layers of the sea.
Inertial currents with a period of 17–18 hours are widespread in the open sea. These currents influence mixing in the water column, since their speeds even in a layer of 500–1000 m can be 20–30 cm/s.
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Water temperature on the sea surface in winter it rises from –0.5 to 0°C in the coastal areas of the northwestern part to 7–8°C in the central and 9–10°C in the southeastern part of the sea. In summer, the surface layer of water warms up to 23–26°C. Only during surges can short-term significant drops in temperature occur (for example, off the southern coast of Crimea).
Salinity in the surface layer all year round, it is minimal in the northwestern part of the sea, where the main volume of river water flows. In the estuary areas, salinity increases from 0–2 to 5–10‰, and in most of the water area open sea it is equal to 17.5–18.3‰. Deep waters in the layer from 1000 m to the bottom (more than 40% of the sea volume) are characterized by great constancy of temperature (8.5–9.2°C) and salinity (22–22.4‰).
During the cold season, a vertical circulation develops in the sea, which by the end of winter covers a layer with a thickness of 30–50 m in central to 100–150 m in coastal areas. The waters cool most strongly in the northwestern part of the sea, from where they are distributed by currents at intermediate horizons throughout the sea and can reach areas farthest from the centers of cold. As a consequence of winter convection, with subsequent summer heating, a cold intermediate layer is formed in the sea. It persists throughout the year at horizons of 60–100 m and is distinguished by its temperature at the boundaries of 8°C, and in the core -6.5–7.5°C.
Convective mixing in the Black Sea cannot extend deeper than 100–150 m due to an increase in salinity (and therefore density) in deeper layers as a result of the influx of salty Marmara Sea waters there. In the upper mixed layer, salinity increases slowly, and then at 100–150 m it sharply increases from 18.5 to 21‰. This is a permanent salinity jump layer (halocline).
Starting from horizons of 150–200 m, salinity and temperature slowly increase towards the bottom due to the influence of saltier and warmer Marble Sea waters entering the deeper layers. At the exit from the Bosphorus they have a salinity of 28–34‰ and a temperature of 13–15°C, but quickly change their characteristics, mixing with black sea water. In the bottom layer, a slight increase in temperature also occurs due to geothermal heat influx from the seabed.
Thus, the main components are distinguished in the vertical hydrological structure of the Black Sea waters:
– the upper homogeneous layer and the seasonal (summer) thermocline, associated mainly with the process of wind mixing and the annual cycle of heat flow through the sea surface;
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– a cold intermediate layer with a minimum temperature in depth, which in the northwest and northeast of the sea arises as a result of autumn-winter convection, and in other areas is formed mainly by the transfer of cold waters by currents;
– constant halocline - a layer of maximum increase in salinity with depth, located in the contact zone of the upper (Black Sea) and deep (Marmara Sea) water masses;
– deep layer - from 200 m to the bottom, where there is no seasonal changes hydrological characteristics, and their spatial distribution is very uniform.
The processes occurring in these layers, their seasonal and interannual variability, determine the hydrological conditions of the Black Sea.
The Black Sea has a two-layer hydrochemical structure. Unlike other seas, only the upper well-mixed layer (0–50 m) is saturated with oxygen (7–8 ml/l). Deeper, the oxygen content begins to decrease rapidly, and already at horizons of 100–150 m it is equal to zero. Hydrogen sulfide appears at the same horizons, the amount of which increases with depth to 5.3–6.6 ml/l at a horizon of 1500 m, and then stabilizes towards the bottom. In the centers of the main cyclonic gyres, where water rises, the upper boundary of the hydrogen sulfide zone is located closer to the surface (70–100 m) than in coastal areas (100–150 m).
At the border between the oxygen and hydrogen sulfide zones there is an intermediate layer of the existence of oxygen and hydrogen sulfide, which represents the lower “limit of life” in the sea.
The spread of oxygen into the deep layers of the sea is hampered by large density gradients in the contact zone of the Black Sea and Marble Sea waters. At the same time, water exchange in the Black Sea occurs throughout the entire water column, albeit slowly.
Diverse vegetable And animal world The Black Sea is almost entirely concentrated in the upper layer 150–200 m thick, constituting 10–15% of the sea's volume. The deep water column, devoid of oxygen and containing hydrogen sulfide, is almost lifeless and inhabited only by anaerobic bacteria.
Among plants, about 350 species of unicellular phytoplanktonic algae are known (including approximately 150 species each of diatoms and peridinia) and about 280 species of benthic macrophytes (129 red, 71 brown and 77 green algae and several species of sea grasses - mainly zoster). Brown algae Cystoseira and red algae Phyllophora are especially numerous, forming huge accumulations at a depth of 20–50 m in the northwestern part of the sea (of commercial importance, reserves of more than 5 million tons). The fauna of the Black Sea is approximately three times poorer than the Mediterranean.
Among the animals, bottom species predominate (about 1700). The most characteristic biocenoses are mussel and phaseolin (based on the mollusk Modiola phaseolina) silts: the first, mainly at a depth of 30-70 m, the second - 50-200 m. By origin, Mediterranean invaders predominate (more than 30% of species); a lesser role is played by relics of the Pliocene brackish-water Pontic basin and freshwater invaders living in the most desalinated areas. Endemic species are about 12%. In total, 2000 species are known: about 300 - protozoa, 650 different worms (including 190 polychaetes), 640 - crustaceans, more than 200 - mollusks, 160 - fish and about 150 - animals of other groups (including 4 species - mammals - seal and 3 species of dolphins). Due to low salinity, many groups of stenohaline marine animals are few in number (for example, echinoderms - 14 species, radiolarians - 10 or absent (cephalopods, brachiopods, etc.).
Ichthyofauna The Black Sea was formed from representatives of different origins and has about 160 species of fish. One of the groups is fish of freshwater origin: bream, crucian carp, perch, rudd, pike perch, ram and others, found mainly in the northwestern part of the sea. In desalinated areas and brackish-water estuaries there are representatives of ancient fauna that have been preserved since the existence of the ancient Ponto-Caspian basin. The most valuable of them are sturgeon, as well as several types of herring. The third group of Black Sea fish consists of immigrants from the North Atlantic - these are cold-loving sprat, whiting, spiny dogfish shark, etc. The fourth, largest group of fish - Mediterranean invaders - has over a hundred species. Many of them enter the Black Sea only in summer, and winter in the Marmara and Mediterranean Seas. These include bonito, mackerel, tuna, Atlantic horse mackerel, etc. Only 60 species of fish of Mediterranean origin that permanently live in the Black Sea can be considered Black Sea. These include: anchovy, garfish, mullet, mackerel, red mullet, mackerel, galkan, stingrays, etc. Of the 20 commercial species of Black Sea fish, only anchovy, small mackerel and sprat, as well as the katran shark, are important.
Currently, the state of the Black Sea ecosystems unfavorably. The species composition of plants and animals is depleted, and the stocks of useful species are reduced. This is primarily observed in shelf areas experiencing significant anthropogenic pressure. The greatest changes are observed in the northwestern part of the sea. A large amount of biogenic and organic substances coming here with continental runoff causes the massive development of planktonic algae (“blooming”). In areas influenced by the Danube River runoff, phytoplankton biomass increased 10–20 times. When oxygen supply to the bottom layers of sea water is limited, oxygen deficiency develops - hypoxia, which can lead to the death of bottom organisms (deaths). The deterioration of water quality and oxygen conditions is one of the main reasons for the decline in the number of commercial fish in the northwestern part of the Black Sea.
There are no explored oil and gas fields in the Russian sector of the Black Sea. Only promising areas are available. On the shelf adjacent to the southern part of the Taman Peninsula, within the depths of the seabed of 100–200 m, local uplifts have been identified, which are the western continuation of the folds of the Kergen-Taman trough, to which the oil and gas fields of the Krasnodar Territory are confined.
On a small estuary - Lake Solenoye - located southeast of Cape Zhelezny Rog on the coast of the Taman Peninsula, a typical beach placer was discovered, composed of fine-grained sands containing a heavy fraction (7.5–30%) in which the content of garnets reaches 68%.
Of great importance water protection Black Sea. The sea is most polluted by oil and petroleum products, phenols and detergents. The western part of the sea is especially contaminated with oil, where ship routes run along the lines Odessa–the mouth of the Danube River–Istanbul and Odessa–the mouth of the Danube River–Varna, as well as coastal waters. Work is being carried out to prevent the discharge of untreated industrial and domestic wastewater into the sea; the discharge of oil, petroleum products and other substances that pollute water is completely prohibited.
Mild climate, good water heating in the warm season, rich and varied vegetation, the presence historical monuments cultures on the coast contribute to active recreational and resort use of the Black Sea. Main resort areas: South coast Crimea (Ukraine), the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus (Russia, Georgia), Golden Sands and sunny Beach(Bulgaria), Mamaia (Romania).
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| Novorossiysk and surrounding area (satellite image) |
On August 2, 1981, the eruption began at 3 am, with a volume of up to 8-10 thousand cubic meters. and was accompanied for three hours, according to the shepherd I.I. Roan, roar, push, but without flame. The year 1982 was marked by a similar eruption of the hill breccia. Ejections of large masses of hill breccia were accompanied by roars and tremors. On May 6, 2001, a paroxysmal catastrophic eruption of the Karabetova Gora mud volcano occurred, accompanied by a strong roar, tremors, bursts of flame, columns of thick smoke and dust up to 100 m high. At the site of the center of the explosion, a rounded massif of hill breccia up to 500 cubic meters was formed. and a volume of up to 800 cubic meters, as well as pockets of brick-red slag. The dry volcanic gases selected later were studied for their chemical and carbon isotope compositions. The gases studied are mixtures of hydrocarbons from the range of methane and its homologues to iso- and normal pentanes and hexanes, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, as well as helium, and in single samples - molecular hydrogen. On June 19, 2004, the eruption repeated with a violent release of hill breccia of about 47 thousand cubic meters. In the 19th century on Karabetova Mountain, researchers identify 5 strongest eruptions, and in the second half of the 20th century - 4. The crater of the volcano (more precisely, a crater plateau), in plan, has the appearance of an oval, elongated with a long axis from southwest to northeast by 1380 m, the width of the crater is 860 m. Its surface is complicated by mud cones hills (salz), mud flows, bulging domes and closed basins, sometimes occupied by lakes. Based on the color of the mud, stages can be very clearly distinguished and the relative times of eruptions can be determined. In the eastern part of the crater plateau there is mud lake. In its center there is a constant release of gases. Liquid mud flows in a stream along a well-developed hollow into the nearest ravine. Near the lake there is a small active mud hill. It looks like a boot. In the upper part of the “boot” there is a crater hole 40 cm long and 10 cm wide. The height of the “boot” is 65 cm.
There is liquid mud in the crater of the hills. Its fresh flows can be traced to the bottom of the ravine. Next to this salsa there is a dome of dried mud more than 0.5 m high. According to local residents and travelers, the largest, active and beautiful volcano in Taman can be called Karabetov Sopka. It erupts twice a year - in spring and autumn. There is an outpouring of mud, and catastrophic eruptions, judging by literary sources, are repeated approximately every 15-20 years. The slopes of the volcano, composed of hill breccia, are subject to intense erosion. Perhaps not a single uplift of the Taman Peninsula is dissected as much by ravines as Karabetka. At the top of the volcano, steps are clearly visible, corresponding to periods of active outpouring of the hill breccia, as a result of which the plateau seemed to be built on, and the mountain grew upward. Maya Ivanovna Lyut, director of the Taman Museum of Local Lore, spoke about the impressive volcanic eruption on Karabetka in June 1985. - "... in the pre-sunset time of August 19, 1984, the population of the village of Taman was seriously alarmed by the behavior of a restless neighbor, the shepherds of the sheep flocks were especially worried. At first, something rumbled inside Karabetka, so much so that cold sweat covered their skin, and everyone An incomprehensible anxiety overwhelmed the observers, and everyone followed the development of events. In a matter of minutes, a flame shot up over the volcano and, at the same time, a roar of deafening force was heard, very similar to the shooting of a large-caliber artillery device. Columns of flame shot up and went out. and the volcano threw out huge stones over considerable distances. This continued for a little over an hour. At the same time, an outpouring of clay breccia and small stones occurred; such emissions, increasing in intensity, were repeated several times. Chaos was noticeable not only on the volcano.
Karabetka’s long stay in a “lethargic sleep” put people in a carefree mood, but then the administration became alarmed. And many did not go to bed and tried not to use electricity. Of course, they called Temryuk and prepared for evacuation. But closer to midnight, it seemed that everything had calmed down, the activity of the eruption had decreased, but the eruption of the mud-stone flow continued for several more days, gradually fading...” It is convenient to start the journey to the Karabetka volcano from the monument “MIG-17 Airplane”, erected to the pilots who heroically defended the sky during the Second World War. At the entrance to the village of Taman, from a fighter plane, the volcano is visible in all its glory, the distance in a straight line is 4 km, but the approach is 5-6 km due to the fact that walking in a straight line on rough terrain is very difficult. The ascent will take 2-4 hours, depending on the preparedness of the group, goals and time of stay. Considering that traveling around the Taman Peninsula is generally fraught with difficulties, we must keep some circumstances in mind. Summer heat oppresses the traveler, from 11 to 19 hours. drops of rare rains evaporate without reaching the surface of the earth. Springs or springs fresh water does not happen, in all estuaries it is brackish or very salty water; There are so many salts dissolved in the water of volcanic lakes that it is strictly forbidden to drink it. That's why drinking water You need to carry it with you, as well as fuel, if you mean making a fire. To summarize the story about land volcanoes, we note that by decision of the Regional Executive Committee of the Temryuk Council of Deputies No. 354 dated July 1, 1978, Karabetova Mountain was approved as a natural monument. This decision was supported by the Krasnodar City Commission on July 14, 1980. The ancient Greeks revered the god of fire, metallurgy and blacksmithing, Hephaestus. He, like his Roman colleague Vulcan, loved to organize their forges - workshops in grottoes, inside volcanoes - fire-breathing mountains. That is why volcanoes received their name, which has become a household name: after the god of fire - Vulcan.
One cannot ignore the heavy breathing of the earth, I mean the mud volcanoes located under the sea water of the Taman and Temryuk bays and the waters of the Kerch Strait. Most often, the Golubitsky mud underwater volcano (between the Golubitskaya station and the town of Temryuk, 200 m from the coast) erupted with explosive phenomena documented in the literature. On September 5, 1799, an underground rumble, crackling, and column of fire and black smoke were heard. The breccia that erupted within two hours created an island of mud with a diameter of 100 m and a height of 2 m. The eruption coincided with the Lower Kuban earthquake of 1799. On May 10, 1814, July 4, 1862 and October 22, 1880, a mud volcanic island also appeared, accompanied by a column pair. In 1906, the eruption of a sea volcano was accompanied by smoke, the ejection of large stones and the formation of an island. In 1924, for several days at the very beginning of July, the volcano again made itself known by creating an ever-increasing island. On July 15, the peak of the eruption - a column of fire, smoke, and ejection of stones was observed for an entire hour. The size of the island is 81 x 58 m. According to the observations of the keeper of the Temryuk lighthouse I.D. Polovoy in 1929, explosive emissions destroyed the coastal mud baths. Then the volcano erupted with the appearance of an island and the release of mud and water to a height of up to 100 m in 1945, 1950 - 1953, 1963, 1966, 1981, 1988, 1994, 2000, 2002. etc. The Temryuksky mud volcano (Peresyp, Kazbek Bank) has been “operating” since 1979 annually with explosive emissions, up to 100 m high, of stones, smoke, water and the appearance of an island. The sea volcano Tizdar (Peresypsky) is located five km north of the coast. On March 26, 2002, he created an island 500 m to the sea. Recently, it has been “working” annually, indicated by a buoy. The waters of the Kerch Strait hide many secrets: sunken ships, ancient settlements and, of course, numerous unidentified geological mysteries. Among them, one of the most interesting is the mud volcanoes of the strait. The debate among scientists has not subsided for a long time.
Some say that there are no volcanoes (Academician N.I. Andrusov and others), others claim their existence. So to the north of the strait there are several rounded shallows, the nature of which is unclear, but they are probably mud volcanoes. The author of one of the first local history essays about Kerch is Kh.Kh. Zenkovich, published in 1894, described in it the appearance of a small island in Kerch Bay in 1880, which was washed away two weeks later. Its exact location is unknown, and its occurrence was then associated with “volcanic forces.” The Blevaka mud volcano is located on the Chushka spit, 7 km from its base. According to researchers V.V. Belousova, E.V. Felitsyn and L.A. Yarotsky - Blevak - a cone of semi-liquid mud 3 m high above sea level. When examined in 1986, the volcano consisted of two hills connected at the base, 2 m high above the water, with a base diameter of each about 20 m. Five griffins were located on the gentle slopes, spewing liquid mud. In the summer of 1995, an island (25 x 30 m) was observed at the site of the volcano, only half a meter above the water, overgrown with reeds. Blevaka is considered a relatively inactive volcano. It lies approximately at the latitude of Mount Gorelaya. Near it you can smell hydrogen sulfide. West of the Cape Tuzla is home to a mud volcano, first described by Shepel S.A. According to him, in 1914 a steamship ran aground in the strait. It turned out that in a zone of 9-meter depths a cone-shaped 4-meter sandbank unexpectedly appeared, soil samples of which were represented by hill breccia. Subsequent geological studies showed the constant presence of certain anomalies (appearance of spots, etc.) in the area where this eroded sandbank is supposed to be located. Not long ago, geologists discovered a mud volcano on the Taman underwater slope southeast of the Kerch Strait. According to fishermen, another mud volcano is known in the Black Sea, southwest of Cape Skirda on the Kerch Peninsula. The mud volcano Peklo Azovskoe is very powerful and large.
Its main part is located in the sea, and on the coastal beach profile fragments of iron ore of Cimmerian-Sarmatian age were found, i.e. there is an ore-bearing structure. Most of Taman's volcanoes have nicknames that were given to them by the sharp-tongued Black Sea Cossacks when they settled in Kuban. Observing the “restless neighbors,” they called them rotten mountains, burnt graves, hills, and vomits. Most of these nicknames stuck firmly to the Taman volcanoes, since they all fell “not on the eyebrow, but on the eye.” Volcano Miska, in the city of Temryuk, got its name from the shape of the crater. Vomit - for a sharp release of dirt, reminiscent of spitting. Blue Beam - for its location in a recessed place. It is also called the Azov Hill and Tizdar after the name of the mountain located about a kilometer from it, etc. Finishing the story about volcanoes, let us briefly touch on the mud volcano of Mount Goreloy or Kuku-Oba, as it was called earlier. The mountain is located opposite the shore (beach) of the village of Taman, across the bay and is a regular pointed hill, reminiscent of the tents of ancient nomads. Now the volcano is sleeping. Its explosive eruption in March 1794 was described in detail by academician P.S. Pallas. First, “a column of black smoke rose from the middle of the hill and then a column of fire rose, which from a distance seemed 50 fathoms high in girth.” The flames were visible for about three hours. For three days, mud “two human heights high” flew out of the crater. The eruption was accompanied by thunderclaps. “...in March, a surveyor found at the top of the Kuku-Oba hill a hole 10 to 12 fathoms made by the eruption and an abyss inward about one arshin (an arshin is 71.26 cm - author) and a half in diameter, he saw steam still escaping and mud and oil flowing out of the hole.” P. Alekseev, in his notes published in 1880, indicates that “the amazement of archaeologists was great when, according to the most precise instructions of Strabo, instead of the tomb of King Satyr, they found the Kuku-Oba mud volcano.
JULES VERNE - ABOUT THE MUD VOLCANOES OF TAMAN
During the eruption of this volcano in 1794, fragments of an ancient statue were thrown out." The volcano of Mount Gorelaya, attracting the ancients with its location, was for them a kind of trap, leading to the destruction of settlements during catastrophic eruptions. In July 1794, Akhtanizovskaya vomit was examined by academician P.S. Pallas, who found shards of ancient vessels, amphorae, reeds and roots in the mud. He suggested that before the formation of the hill there was a burial mound or a place of sacrifice... Which of the great science fiction writers wrote about the mud volcanoes of Taman? or as they are also called mud hills, sopukhs, macalubs, saiz, pseudo-volcanoes, rotten hills, burnt graves, vomits, etc. - wrote none other than Jules Verne himself in 1882 in the novel “Stubborn Keraban”. The biography shows that the writer has not traveled much and, of course, has never been to our area. So the good thing about fiction is that you can write about something you have never seen. The author begins: “Taman is a rather miserable little town.” Li, is very reminiscent of Lermontov: “Taman is the worst little town of all the coastal cities of Russia.” However, the heroes of the novel crossed the town in a carriage, without stopping, and then set off along south coast Taman Bay - an area extremely rich for hunting. In the evening, “at dinner time,” the travelers stopped at one of the stations with a mediocre hotel, “but there was enough food in it.” They set off on their further journey Caucasus Mountains already dark night. “It was about 11 o’clock in the evening when strange sound brought them out of their half-asleep state. It was a kind of whistling sound, comparable to the sound that seltzer water makes when it comes out of a bottle, but ten times stronger. One would think that compressed steam was bursting through a pipe from some boiler.”
When asked what was happening, the coachman replied that mud volcanoes had awakened, and suggested that the passengers leave the carriage and walk 5-6 versts behind the carriage, as the horses might run away. It was very dark, but if this had happened during the day, “one could have seen: the steppe over a huge area seemed to be swelling with small eruption cones, similar to the huge anthills of Equatorial Africa. From these cones, correctly designated by the scientific name "mud volcanoes" (although volcanic activity is in no way involved in this phenomenon), water, gas and bitumen burst out. Under the pressure of hydrogen mixed with carbon, a mixture of silt, gypsum, limestone, pyrite, even oil bursts out with force. These swellings gradually increase in size, rupture and spew out their contents, and then settle... These erupting cones in large quantities cover the surface of the Taman Peninsula. They are also found in similar areas of the Kerch Peninsula,” but there they were away from the road. Now someone has warned that in order to avoid an explosion you should not light a cigarette. “Smoking in this steppe is as dangerous as in a powder magazine,” they walked in the darkness and very carefully. The horses neighed in front, reared up, and with another blinding flash that illuminated a whole mile away, the driver could not hold the team. “The frightened horses bolted, the carriage sped off at great speed. Everyone stopped. After this dark night, the steppe presented a sight that could be terrifying. The flame that arose on one cone spread to neighboring ones. They began to explode one after another as violently as fireworks batteries with intersecting fiery jets. The plain was now brightly lit. In this light, hundreds of thick fire-breathing hummocks became visible, blazing with gas and spewing out liquid contents - some with the ominous sheen of oil, others with a variety of colors due to the presence of white sulfur, pyrite or iron carbonate.
To be continued in part 9
With the Russians reaching the shores of the Black and Azov seas During the time of Peter I, a period of systematic study of these reservoirs began. By order of Peter I in 1696, the depth of the Sea of Azov was measured, which turned out to be very shallow. The ship “Fortress” made many valuable observations and measurements on its way from Kerch to the Bosphorus. Based on these data, a sea map with depth marks was compiled and it was proven that south of Kerch there is great depths, in the central part of the Black Sea there are no shoals, as was previously thought.
Based on observations made at the “Fortress”, which laid the foundation for the hydrographic study of the Black Sea, an atlas of the Black and Azov Seas with a navigation map of the route from Kerch to Constantinople was published in 1703.
After joining Crimean peninsula and the Northern Black Sea region to the Russian state, a powerful Black Sea fleet is being created, new ports are being built. Systematic hydrographic research also began. In 1820, a Franco-Russian expedition described the shores of the Black Sea. In 1825 – 1836 a special expedition led by E.P. Manganari maps in detail the Black Sea and Azov shores, as a result of which the first meaningful atlas of the coast was published in 1842.
Exploration of the coast and measurement of the depths of the Black Sea continues by order and direction of the famous Russian navigator and naval commander Admiral M.P. Lazarev. The Russian expedition (tenders “Pospeshny” and “Skory”) is accompanied by Turkish ships during research off the Turkish coast.
The first studies were also carried out chemical composition Black Sea water with an accuracy accessible to the analytical methods of that time. The Russian chemist I. Gebel established (1842) that the salinity of the Black Sea is significantly lower than the salinity of the ocean: in a water sample taken far from the coast, south of the city of Feodosia, he obtained a dry residue equal to 17.666 g per 1 liter of water. In 1871 - 1876 F. Wrangel and F. Mandel were the first to measure the temperature and density of surface sea water off the coast of Crimea. Research has determined that the density of Black Sea water is lower than the density of ocean water, and this confirmed the opinion expressed by ancient authors about the greater freshwater content of the Black Sea compared to the Mediterranean Sea.
The beginning of systematic, detailed research of the Black Sea was laid by two scientific events at the end of the 19th century. – studying the Bosphorus currents (1881–1882) and conducting two oceanographic deep-measuring expeditions (1890–1891).
The understanding of the underwater relief of the central part of the Black Sea, in contrast to the depths of the coastal part, continued to remain extremely unsatisfactory. The assumption of the existence of an underwater threshold between the Crimea and the Turkish coast, dividing the Black Sea basin into the western and eastern halves, gave rise to the Russian geologist I. I. Andrusov, who worked on the problems of the origin of the Black Sea and its geological history, to conceive a detailed study of the topography of the Black Sea bottom. IN late XIX V. on his initiative, a systematic and comprehensive study of the Black Sea was launched. On December 30, 1889, in Moscow, at the congress of Russian naturalists and doctors, in his extensive report, Andrusov proved the need to study the topography of the Black Sea bottom.
In 1890, the first depth-measuring expedition was carried out. Studies have shown that the bottom of the central part of the Black Sea is a flat basin. What was sensational was that all the samples taken from the bottom did not bring any living creatures; the vessels only carried the smell of hydrogen sulfide. This proved that the depths of the Black Sea were lifeless. It has been proven that in all parts of the sea at a depth of more than 200 m, the water contains hydrogen sulfide.
In the in-depth study of the physical and chemical characteristics of the Black Sea waters, a large role belongs to the Black Sea stations and research institutes: the Azov-Black Sea Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography in Kerch, the Institute of Biology south seas, Marine Hydrophysical Institute in Sevastopol.
Data on the relief and geological structure of the Black Sea depression was updated as a result of studies conducted in 1956 - 1958. Institute of Oceanology of the USSR Academy of Sciences on the ships “Akademik S. Vavilov” and “Akademik Shirshov”. About 40 thousand km of echo sounding profiles and over 1000 km of seismic profiles were made. The Institute of Geophysics of the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR also studied the Black Sea.
As a result of comprehensive research, a more accurate isobath map, geophysical maps, and geomorphological map of the Black Sea were compiled.
Under the leadership of the outstanding oceanologist V.P. Zenkovich, long-term studies of the dynamics and morphology of the coastal zone of the Black Sea basin were carried out. The doctrine of dynamics was created Crimean shores, which is currently being developed in Ukraine.
The relief of the Black Sea bottom and the sediments covering it are being studied using increasingly sophisticated methods. Much new and interesting information comes from analyzing samples taken from the bottom using a specially designed device called a “vibrating piston tube.”
The coastal underwater slope to a depth of 15 - 20 m was studied using aerial photography, and some areas were examined by scuba divers under the direct supervision of V.P. Zenkovich. Based on paleontological data and using radioactive carbon, the age of underwater terraces of the Black Sea shelf off the coast was determined.
In April and May 1969, American oceanologists, as a result of comprehensive studies of mainly the Black Sea basin on the ship Atlantis 2, determined the age of the three upper sedimentary layers: 3, 7, 25 thousand years, respectively. It was found that at the bottom of the Black Sea basin, modern sedimentation processes are 10 times more intense than at the bottom Atlantic Ocean. It turned out that the salinity of fossil waters in bottom sediments at a depth of up to 2 m it is 7–8%, i.e. we can conclude that the deposits were formed under almost freshwater conditions.
In the summer of 1975, the special American vessel Glomar Challenger carried out three deep-sea drillings in the Black Sea: one in the deepest part of the Black Sea basin, the second 50 km northeast of the Bosphorus, the third 135 km southwest of Sevastopol. The most interesting data turned out to be the latest drilling: Pliocene deposits were discovered at a depth of 3185 m, and the thickness (thickness) of the Quaternary sediment layer was 1075 m.
If we compare the height of Pliocene deposits in the Burgas Lowland and the upper limit of such deposits, reached by drilling in the sea southwest of Sevastopol, we obtain a difference of 3385 m. This shows that the modern Black Sea basin was formed in the middle or at the end of the Pliocene.