Such an event as the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus is now of little interest to anyone, but just a few centuries ago America itself did not exist for Europeans at all.

No one could have imagined that beyond their narrow little world there was a huge world inhabited by large nations, a developed culture and a mass of monuments of ancient history.

Today America is the center of development of our world, where people from all over the planet flock, the best scientists, programmers, and simply active people who want to realize the American dream in their lives. And this is one of the most important reasons why it is worth knowing more about the discovery of this continent.

North America is interesting to study from a historical perspective, not only because it is unique and fascinating in its own way, but also in order to better understand its people, established values ​​and culture.

It was the colonialist status of this powerful power that at one time became the incentive that forced it to actively develop and turn into what we see now. And it fell to the great traveler Columbus to discover this continent full of beauty and secrets.

In contact with

Who discovered America first

We all know the stories about the travels of the great man Columbus, who, together with his crew, fearlessly sailed the oceans in search of new places to spread the power of his country. This man acted both from the will of his leadership and the country, and was driven by personal interests, the desire to move and discover new things.

Amerigo Vespucci (1454 - 1512)

But not everyone knows that Columbus was not the first to discover America, since another equally legendary traveler managed to do it before him.

America got its name in honor of the most famous traveler of his time - Amerigo Vespucci. This resident of Florence, born in 1454, set out under the leadership of Admiral Alonso de Ojeda as a navigator to conquer hitherto unprecedented lands.

It was he who gave Venezuela its current name, which means “little Venice,” and also discovered dozens of other places, which later largely retained the names given to them. It is interesting that Vespucci most likely was personally acquainted with the Spanish traveler Columbus; their acquaintance probably took place in the trading house of Danoto Berardi.

The discoverer Vespucci did not go unnoticed, and it was in honor of his discoveries that the lands of the New Overseas World were later named America.

What then did Columbus discover?

If it was Vespucci who discovered the continents of America, which is reflected even in its name, then what are the merits of the famous Columbus, why is he considered the discoverer of this region of the world?

Many travelers reached the shores of the New World before Columbus, but the problem with their travels was that they did not leave behind any clear and structured information. The heritage of the travels of Christopher's predecessors remained in the shadows, few knew about them, and that part of the world still remained distant and mysterious.

Columbus himself, starting from 1499 and later, in his further voyages not only reached the shores of the Western Hemisphere, but collected a lot of information about the countries and islands located there.

It was he who opened these places to a wide range of Europeans and launched mass travel and migration to this region, beginning a century of great change and transformation of the whole world.

When and how America was discovered by Christopher Columbus

The discovery of America is a collective concept that includes many events, and not just the discovery of the largest island or country on the continent.

It is believed that the discoverer discovered the New World in 1492, during his first expedition there. At this time, Spanish ships reached Haiti, the Caribbean islands, visited the Bahamas archipelago, and also Cuba.

The first island that travelers met in America was San Salvador, where they landed in the memorable year 1492.

This expedition, like the three subsequent ones, was organized by the Spanish king with the goal of finding shorter routes to India, with which increasingly close trade relations were being established at that time. But fate turned out differently, and the sailors’ path went to the shores of completely new lands.

Columbus's four expeditions - a brief history of the discovery of America

In total, Columbus, together with other brave sailors, made 4 expeditions to the shores of Novaya Zemlya. Thanks to these visits, a lot of new islands, countries and regions appeared on the map, many of which still have the names that the sailors of the past assigned to them.

The first trip took place in 1492-1493, there were 91 people on 3 ships, the places visited at that time have already been mentioned above. The sailors returned home on March 15, 1943.

The next, 2nd journey, took place in 1493-1496. The navigator was already in the rank of admiral and, in addition to this, also the viceroy of the open lands. Now the team of one and a half thousand people and 17 ships was faced with the task of gaining a foothold in new lands and thoroughly exploring them. This time we managed to discover the Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Puerto Rico, Pinos, and delve significantly into the study of Haiti.

The third time, the journey lasted 2 years (1498-1500) and this voyage made it possible to study the New World even better. The islands of Trinidad and the Paria Peninsula were discovered, and the development of not only the lands of what is now the United States, but also South America began. The peninsulas of Margarita and Araya were also found, and many studies were carried out.

The last, 4th voyage of Columbus took place in 1502-1504. This time, the brave discoverer of new lands reached the Caribbean shores, visiting Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Panama. In 1503, trouble happened - a sailor's ship was wrecked near Jamaica.

Columbus's travel routes on the map

To clearly see the journey that the brave traveler from Europe took with his team, just look at the routes of all 4 expeditions shown on the map. In general terms, the features of the route of each new voyage are clear from the list of new lands discovered, but for greater clarity, you can use the following image:

Official discovery date of America

As mentioned above, the official date of the discovery of America is considered to be 1492, when the very first expedition of the great European sailor took place.

There are a lot of stories that indirectly indicate that the coast of America was first discovered not by Columbus or Vespucci, but by many other explorers and even representatives of the Viking people.

But the official date of discovery is precisely 1492, because it was not just a discovery on the map, but also the discovery of the countries of the New World as a cultural phenomenon, the beginning of an endless flow of emigrants and the establishment of trade and economic ties.

The fact that it was Christopher Columbus who took upon himself the great glory of being considered a discoverer is, in a way, a stroke of fate, but not just something that fell on one’s head, but given as a reward for courage, activity and lack of fear of trials and distant journeys.

The significance of the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus

Obviously, the discovery of the New World for Europe in the form of North and South America became a grandiose event of its time and set the vector for the development of an entire world civilization for hundreds of years to come.

Thanks to these events, the United States emerged, at first frail and mired in internal conflicts, populated by incomprehensible personalities and adventurers, and later quickly transformed into an advanced country that fought slavery, created the most powerful dollar currency, and shifted progress in science and technology to new horizons.

The event in question has become extremely important both for Europe and America, and for the whole world. It is difficult to imagine what the current civilization, economic and political maps of the world would look like if it were not for the presence of a Spanish daredevil at one time, who, for the sake of the call of honor and a gambling desire for adventure, would not have gone to conquer the Atlantic Ocean.

Columbus discovered America on October 12, 1492

", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)"> So, October 12, 1492 The expedition vessels approached the new land carefully, so as not to run into reefs. They dropped the anchors. We prepared everything we needed. And with God's help, October 13, 1492 and the leadership of the expedition represented by the Pinson brothers, Juana de la Cosa Notary Rodrigo de Escoveda, inspector plenipotentiary of the crown Rodrigo Sanchez de Segovia (who were dragged with them across all the seas especially for this occasion) and a group of comrades were the first to go ashore.

October 13, 1492 Columbus first set foot on the shores of the new land

", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)">
On behalf of and on behalf of the king and queen, Christopher Columbus took possession of the land he discovered. A notarial deed was drawn up about this right there on the spot with all the required formalities. Actually, it was at this moment that Columbus became the Viceroy, because he had his own territory! Having hoisted the Castilian banner on the shore, the delegation went to explore the local sights. And after a short time, “tour guides” appeared - local residents.

Columbus named the first island he discovered "San Salvador"

", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)">
It is interesting that there are no detailed descriptions of the exact place where Columbus landed, from which one could confidently say which of the Bahamas was the first to feel the pleasant weight of Castilian boots. Therefore, several pieces of land from the Bahamas garland are fighting for the right to primacy. For himself, Columbus named the island San - Salvador (Salvation).

After spending several days exploring the island and establishing contacts with local residents Arawaks, as they called themselves, Columbus began to suspect that he had not found exactly what he was looking for. The islanders were in the Stone Age in terms of development - they did not know metals. They didn't know the wheels. They did not use pack or riding animals. Their language was not similar to any of the eastern languages ​​in which the expedition’s interpreter tried to communicate with them. Luis de Torres. However, at first this did not bother Columbus. One could assume that his ships reached some island remote from the mainland. What was more confusing was that no spices grew on the island. And most importantly, there was no gold.

However, as sources say, local residents had some pieces of gold, and Columbus began asking where it came from and where they supposedly got it? What the savages pointed to in the direction of the southwest - there, they say, there is a big land, other people live there and here they have... ", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)"> All this nonsense that wanders from book to book, from site to site, with the addition of fictitious details, is not worth a penny eaten by a banana. If the natives San Salvadora and there was gold, why would they need it? What is its value to them? Is it processed or in nugget form? The Columbusers, of course, could show the natives their gold products. But what could the natives compare them to? Just some questions...

", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)">
Having searched for gold in the ground on the island and not finding it, the forwarders decided to continue searching - depending on their luck. After stumbling around the Bahamas for two weeks, the Admiral's expedition landed on the northeastern coast of Cuba on October 28, 1492. They equipped the landing party, scoured the coast for quite a long time, and sent reconnaissance deep into the territory. But even here there was not what he was looking for. No gold. No spices. No palaces. Neither the Great Khan.

I think it is no coincidence that the Admiral was unlucky with all this. After all, he came to the new land to take, take away, bury, and not in order to do something good on it. And the ending of his fate in this regard is quite natural. Columbus's crew were the usual invaders, bandits, slave traders and murderers. And Christian morality did not condemn all this. However, there are other places on the Internet for philosophical discussions, and we will return to our travelers.

", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)"> Believing that he is in the poorest part of China, Columbus decides to turn east, where, according to one version, the rich country of Sipangu /Japan/ could be located, according to another (at the suggestion of local residents) - it was precisely to the east of Cuba that there was a large island on which there was a lot of gold in the pile. The ships headed east along the northern coast of Cuba.

", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)">
It is impossible to say exactly how and when exactly the members of the expedition first tried tobacco, but a record of this historical event appears in Columbus's logbook on November 15. There is a version that in a word tobacco It was not the plant itself that was called, but the tube through which the Indians inhaled the smoke. But it was precisely this that became the common name for the potion itself.

Where did Pinta go?

On November 20, 1492, the Pinta suddenly disappeared. She simply disappeared from sight, apparently leaving at night. The most current version is that its captain, Martin Alonso Pinzon, the second man in the expedition, who seemed to be burning with delusions of grandeur and thirst for profit, broke away from his comrades to be the first to find gold. Or other values. And be the first to rush back, because he also knew something about navigation. Most likely, this was the case.

On December 6, 1492, Columbus discovered the island of Haiti - Hispaniola

", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)">
The remaining two ships continued their journey east and two weeks later, on December 6, 1492, the travelers discovered the present island of Haiti, which Columbus called Hispaniola /little Spain/, although the island was three times the size of Sicily!

", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)">
Columbus discovered an island off the northern coast of Hispaniola, which he named Tortuga/Turtle/. This island later became the most famous nest in the Caribbean, was repeatedly described in novels and has retained the name given by Columbus to this day.

For another two weeks, Niña and Santa Maria slowly moved along the winding coast of Haiti, all the while trying to establish contacts with the local population for the presence of precious metals.", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)">In one of the bays where the ships stopped, they managed to find out from the local population that further to the east there was the territory of a powerful leader Guacanagari, and in the depths of the island lies an area called Cibao, where there is a lot of this gold as shoe polish at the shoe polish factory. The admiral, of course, immediately thought that Cibao That's what it is Sipango, decided to reach the leader’s territory by sea and then penetrate deeper into the country. But then the unexpected happened. On the night of December 25, 1492, the Santa Maria landed on a reef.

The mystery of death ""

The crash of the Santa Maria still causes ambiguous assessments among Columbus scholars, because the circumstances of the disaster inspired and continue to inspire suspicion. Why did we walk along the coast at night, where there could always be pitfalls? Why was there a cabin boy at the helm?Maybe it was beneficial for someone to run the expedition’s flagship aground? But to whom?

1. To the owner of the ship Juan de la Cosa? Perhaps he expected to get insurance for it? So he actually later received compensation from the kings for lost property, which indirectly confirms this guess.

2. To the Admiral himself. It is possible that he does too. Let's try to reason. Realizing that he had not discovered what he was looking for, Columbus felt the futility of further searches for Japan and China. If they were somewhere close, there would be indirect signs of their proximity - goods exchanged with local tribes, perhaps a wheel, metal products. But none of this happened. But Columbus had already become the Viceroy of all these lands. And the land turned out to be considerable! It was necessary to return here with exploration expeditions. Leaving some people here is an additional argument for equipping the next expedition. In addition, Columbus could well suspect that Martin A. Pinson disappeared on the Pinta for a reason. He could rush back to be the first to report to the kings about the new lands and receive all the preferences. Santa Maria would be a liability for Columbus in this race. And there was a reason for refusing further searches for Japan and the Great Khan - they say, with one ship somewhere... This, of course, is all speculation...

The third and most likely version is that the team simply got too drunk on Christmas. Valiant conquistadors started pouring down their throats the night before and were simply not able to get behind the wheel or take the helm. Catholic Christmas is celebrated on the night of December 24-25. It gets dark early in southern latitudes. And breaking the fast after fasting is allowed with the appearance of the first star in the sky. That's the whole truth about the crash of the Santa Maria.

Fort "Navidad" - pFirst Spanish settlement in America

From the wreckage of the flagship, it was decided to build a fortified settlement on the shore and leave a significant part of the crew there - 39 souls in total. This colonists involuntarily The admiral promised to definitely return next year. ", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)">
On the third day of Christmas, travelers began building a fortress. It was decided to call it “ Navidad" (Navidad in Spanish - Christmas), and the remains of “Santa Maria” were used to build this stronghold. The colonists were left with a significant supply of food, wine, firearms and a boat. The admiral said a touching farewell to those who remained to spend the winter in the new land, and told them not to remember him in a dashing manner and to live amicably among themselves and with their neighbors. Alas, this was the last time he saw them alive. 2 January 1493 The last remaining caravel of Christopher Columbus's first expedition, the Niña, set off on its return journey.

Return of the prodigal "Pint". Back home with full sails!

On Sunday, 6 January 1493 year, the Pinta was spotted from the mainmast of the Niña. It’s a very strange accident... Soon the Admiral met with the captain of the missing caravel M.A. Pinson, who stated that he had separated from the flotilla against his will (?!?). No one can establish what actually happened there, but both commanders understood that in their situation a bad peace was better than a good quarrel and did not begin to sort things out until the end. The ships rummaged around a little more in Haiti in the last hope of finding something, replenished supplies and16 January 1493 in full sail, heading steeply to the northnor-north-east(or in our opinion, to the north-northeast). Columbus's return journey to Castile began.

Travelers of the Age of Great Geographical Discovery

Russian travelers and pioneers

The biography of the life of Christopher Columbus is so eventful that one could write an interesting book. We will present a short version containing the basic facts of life as a traveler.

He was born into a poor Spanish family. Since childhood, I dreamed of being famous for my last name. Christopher discovered the western route along which America exports goods today. He is the discoverer of South and North America. Columbia is named in his honor - it is a significant part of America.

The young navigator dreamed of finding Indian treasures and getting rich, but he later failed - all the valuables, gold and pearls of the Caribbean Sea passed into the power of the King of Portugal.

Parts of the world and continents discovered by Columbus

During his life, Columbus managed to discover: North and South America, the Bahamas, Cuba and Haiti, the large and small Antilles, and a number of small islands in the Caribbean.

Biography of Columbus - summary

Christopher Columbus was born on September 26, 1951 in the Republic of Genoa. His mother was a housewife, his father worked in a weaving shop and as a grape seller.

In addition to Christopher, there were three younger brothers and a sister in the family. Everyone studied at the same school. One of Columbus's brothers, Giovanni, died of a serious illness at an early age, and his sister got married. And the two younger brothers were to go with the eldest on the fourth expedition in the future.

Already at the age of 14, Christopher differed from his peers with an excellent memory, great imagination, strong intellect, and rich imagination. At the age of 14, in the city of Padua, he entered university with the help of kind, rich people, completed a paid course of study, and received a bachelor's degree. Interestingly, based on this data, historians claim that the Spanish navigator was the son of a Jewish woman.

At the university, Columbus became friends with the astronomer Paolo Toscanelli, they shared new knowledge and ideas with each other. A faithful friend suggested to Christopher that it was easier to get to the riches of India by going around the continent of Africa along the western route rather than along the eastern one. Columbus, having made calculations, brought to life the spoken words of Toscanneli.

Columbus's voyage to the shores of America

Christopher Columbus married Moniz Phillipa. Her father was an avid traveler, and after his death he left his son-in-law with tons of educational material as an inheritance. This included: books, manuscripts, maps, diaries, known continents, wind directions, geometric weather conditions. For Christopher, this is a whole treasure.

Columbus figured out how to get to India by the western route. Then he asked for financial support from the noble, richest people of the country. Anticipating great risks, entrepreneurs refused charity.

In 1483, Columbus made an appointment with King Joao II of Portugal, explained his plans to him in detail, but did not receive a positive response, since all the country’s financial resources were spent on weapons and clothing for soldiers.

After many years of searching for sponsors, Queen Isabella of Castile became interested in the project. Columbus was given the title "Don" and promised that he would be "Admiral of the Sea-Ocean and Viceroy of all the lands" that he would discover. But the royal couple did not give money.

The traveler was helped by the Spanish shipowner Martin Alonso Pinson, who went with Columbus on the expedition and supplied him with everything he needed, including ships.

Columbus's route on the map

The map clearly shows the route of the ships on which the traveler and his expedition sailed.

First expedition

August 3, 1492. The number of sailors was about 80 people. Columbus discovered San Juan Bautista. In 1508, the persecution of the local inhabitants of the island, their enslavement and murder began. The entire population of the Caribbean island died out. The city of Caparra was founded on this site.

Second expedition

September 25, 1493. The rapid movements of 178 Portuguese ships, led by Columbus, broke into the Lesser Antilles and Hungarian Islands.

The ships, numbering more than 1,600 people, carried with them seeds, cattle and poultry for the development of agriculture and orchard trees. This is how the island of Jamaica and Puerto Rico were discovered.

This voyage paved the way to the West Indies. Later, prisoners from Spanish prisons were taken into exile on this island. The thugs caused great harm to the local population, gradually gaining territory for themselves to live in. Thus, Portugal got rid of unnecessary hassle with prisoners.

Third expedition

May 30, 1498. Nobody wanted to go swimming; many criminals gathered on the team. 300 thugs under the command of Columbus arrived in Trinidad. This is how the famous traveler named the island on the Indian coast.

Two weeks later, the scientist and geographer Vasco Da Gama discovered the true route to India, which brought a whole ship of spices to the royal court. He stated that the real India is where he just visited, and Columbus is a real deceiver - the lands that he discovered are not India at all.

Christopher's big mistake turned out to be disastrous; in 1500 he was sent to prison. Columbus's influential acquaintances contributed to the liberation. Christopher made the mistake of mistaking America for the Indian islands, which cost him his freedom.

Fourth expedition

May 9, 1502. Having gone through many difficulties, the scientist did not want to stop and decided to calculate the coordinates to the new lands of South Asia. He managed to obtain permission to sail with great difficulty.

In 1502, together with two brothers, he managed to discover: the mainland of Central America, the islands of Panama, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. The sailors included 150 people, they sailed on three ships.

The discoverers came face to face with Indian tribes. After this trip, the Indians and Africans suffered a lot of grief and great loss. The Portuguese committed massacres and colonized the slave system.

The significance of Columbus's discovery of America

The value of the discoveries of the great traveler is known to everyone, but let’s still clarify:

• first to cross the Atlantic Ocean in the tropics and subtropics of the Northern Hemisphere;
• the first European to sail the “Mediterranean” American Sea;
• explored the shores of America (total length 2700 km);
• open lands: discovered South America, the isthmus of Central America, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, Dominica and Virginia, the islands of the Caribbean, Fr. Trinidad, Bahamas archipelago;
• A necklace, diamonds and pearls were brought to the coast of Portugal.

Christopher Columbus last years of life

The last years of Christopher Columbus's life were spent with an incurable illness. His acquaintances and friends learned about his death very late. Columbus is buried in the city of Valladolid.

How Columbus died and where he is buried

On the verge of life and death, he held the hands of his sons and, unconscious, talked about his travels. The location of his grave is still unknown, and his date of birth is not certain.

There is a large monument dedicated to Columbus in Santo Domingo. It's called Faro a Colon, Spanish for "Columbus Lighthouse." It is a strong electrical system that forms a giant cross in the air at dusk. The light is so bright that it can be seen even in Puerto Rico.

Columbus died in the city of Valladolid. Before his death, Christopher asked his sons to transfer his remains to the Carthusian monastery in Seville. At the request of his wife, in 1542, Columbus's body was again moved to the city of Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic.

Recently, in Santo Domingo, construction workers dug up a lead box with the inscription: “The illustrious and respected Don Cristobal Colon,” with bone fragments remaining inside. Translated from Spanish "Christopher Columbus". So the burial place of Columbus remains unknown to this day.

Not everyone probably knows that:

• The traveler's real name is Cristobal Colon;
• Columbus is Jewish by nationality, scientists think so, because his mother was Israeli. The traveler's intelligence and memory were superior to his classmates, and scientists attribute unusual abilities only to Jews;
• the navigator’s homeland is Spain, Valladolid;
• when Columbus set out on his journey, he did not have a penny, he was helped by Martin Alonso Pinzon, a shipowner from Spain, who later became the same discoverer;
• ships on which the traveler and his expedition sailed to America: Santa Maria, Pinta, Niña;
• Having sailed to America, Columbus decided that it was India, calling the continent the West Indies. Here he made a serious mistake, which cost him his freedom. He was jailed. But a month after his imprisonment, influential acquaintances pulled Columbus to freedom;
• the navigator's predecessors massively enslaved and exterminated the people who lived before their arrival, at the cost of blood.
• The sad shade in the character of Columbus is that he did not care about the further fate of the local inhabitants of another land, and he continued to ruthlessly discover other continents.

The famous traveler was distinguished from his friends by his pride, great will, patience, and was driven forward by a great motivation for power and wealth. The scientist tried to develop new lands for his people.

After his discoveries, many island residents died; brutal murders were committed by Spanish criminals and soldiers. More than 100 kg of pearls were exported from the Caribbean Sea to the shores of Portugal. The discoveries that Columbus made were truly appreciated only in the 16th century.

Reasons for Spain's overseas expansion

In the second half of the 15th century. Feudalism in Western Europe was in the process of decay, large cities grew, and trade developed. Money became the universal means of exchange, the need for which increased sharply. Therefore, in Europe the demand for gold has increased greatly, which has intensified the desire for the “Indies” - the birthplace of spices, where there is supposedly a lot of gold. But at the same time, as a result of the Turkish conquests, it became increasingly difficult for Western Europeans to use the old, eastern combined land and sea routes to the “Indies.”

At that time, only Portugal was searching for southern sea routes. For other Atlantic countries by the end of the 15th century. only the path to the west across the unknown ocean remained open. The idea of ​​such a path appeared in Renaissance Europe in connection with the dissemination among a relatively wide range of interested parties of the ancient doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth, and long-distance voyages became possible thanks to the achievements in the second half of the 15th century. successes in shipbuilding and navigation.

These were the general prerequisites for the overseas expansion of Western European countries. The fact that it was Spain that was the first to send Christopher Columbus’s small flotilla to the west in 1492 is explained by the conditions that developed in this country by the end of the 15th century. One of them was the strengthening of Spanish royal power, previously limited. A turning point began in 1469, when Queen Isabella of Castile married the heir to the Aragonese throne, Ferdinand. Ten years later he became king of Aragon. Thus, in 1479, the largest Pyrenean states were united and a united Spain emerged. Skillful politics strengthened royal power. With the help of the urban bourgeoisie, the crowned couple curbed the rebellious nobility and large feudal lords. Having created in 1480-1485. Inquisition, the kings turned the church into the most terrible weapon of absolutism. The last Muslim Iberian state, the Emirate of Granada, could not withstand their onslaught for long. At the beginning of 1492, Granada fell. The eight-century process of the Reconquista ended, and “United Spain” entered the world stage.

Bartolome de Las Casas

"Archives of the Indies", Seville, Spain

Overseas expansion was in the interests of both the royal power itself and its allies - the urban bourgeoisie and the church. The bourgeoisie sought to expand the sources of primitive accumulation; the church is to spread its influence to pagan countries. The Spanish nobility could provide the military force to conquer the “pagan Indies.” This was both in his interests and in the interests of the absolutist royalty and the urban bourgeoisie. The conquest of Granada put an end to the almost continuous war with the Moors in Spain itself, a war that had been the trade of many thousands of hidalgos. Now they sat idle and became even more dangerous for the monarchy and cities than in the last years of the Reconquista, when the kings, in alliance with the townspeople, had to wage a stubborn struggle against the robber gangs of the nobles. It was necessary to find a way out for the accumulated energy of the hidalgo. The solution, beneficial for the crown and the cities, for the clergy and nobility, was overseas expansion.

The royal treasury, especially the Castilian one, was constantly empty, and overseas expeditions to Asia promised fabulous profits. The Hidalgos dreamed of land holdings overseas, but even more so of the gold and jewelry of “China” and “India,” since most of the nobles were in debt like silk to the moneylenders. The desire for profit was combined with religious fanaticism - a consequence of the centuries-old struggle of Christians against Muslims. One should not, however, exaggerate its importance in Spanish (as well as Portuguese) colonial expansion. For the initiators and organizers of overseas expansion, for the leaders of the Conquest, religious zeal was a familiar and convenient mask under which the desire for power and personal gain was hidden. Bishop Bartolomé Las Casas, a contemporary of Columbus, the author of “The Shortest Report of the Ruin of India” and the multi-volume “History of India,” described the conquistadors with amazing force with his catchphrase: “They walked with a cross in their hand and with an insatiable thirst for gold in their hearts.” “Catholic kings” zealously defended the interests of the church only when they coincided with their personal ones. That Columbus in this case was no different from the kings is clearly evident from those documents that were personally written or dictated by him.

Christopher Columbus and his project

Almost all facts from the life of Columbus are controversial ( Columbus is the Latinized form of the Italian surname Colombo. In Spain his name was Cristoval Colon), relating to his youth and long stay in Portugal. It can be considered established, although with some doubt, that he was born in the autumn of 1451 in Genoa into a very poor Catholic family. At least until 1472, he lived in Genoa itself or (from 1472) in Savona and, like his father, was a member of a woolen guild. It is not known whether Columbus studied at any school, but it has been proven that he read in four languages ​​- Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Latin, and read a lot and, moreover, very carefully. Probably, Columbus's first long voyage dates back to the 70s: documents contain indications of his participation in the Genoese trade expeditions that visited in 1474 and 1475. O. Chios in the Aegean Sea.

Columbus Christopher,1451 — 1506

Italian navigator in Spanish service, discoverer and explorer of the West Indies, South America

In May 1476, Columbus went by sea to Portugal as a clerk at a Genoese trading house and lived there for nine years - in Lisbon, Madeira and Porto Santo. According to him, he visited both England and Guinea, in particular the Gold Coast. We, however, do not know in what capacity he sailed - a sailor or a clerk at a trading house. But already during his first expedition, Columbus, despite the inevitable mistakes and failures of a new enterprise, proved himself to be a very experienced sailor, who combined the qualities of a captain, astronomer and navigator. He not only completely mastered the art of navigation, but also raised it to a higher level. According to the traditional version, Columbus, back in 1474, sought advice regarding the shortest sea route to “India” Paolo Toscanelli, astronomer and geographer. The Florentine sent in response a copy of his letter to the Portuguese scholar-monk, who had addressed him earlier on behalf of the king Afonso V. In this letter, Toscanelli pointed out that there was a shorter route across the ocean to the spice countries than the one that the Portuguese were looking for when sailing along the western coast of Africa. “I know that the existence of such a path can be proven on the basis that the Earth is a sphere. Nevertheless, to facilitate the undertaking, I am sending... a map made by me... It shows your coasts and islands, from where you must sail continuously to the west; and the places where you will arrive; and how far you should keep from the pole or from the equator; and how far you must travel to reach the countries where there are the most various spices and precious stones. Do not be surprised that I call the country where spices grow west, while they are usually called east, because people sailing steadily westward will reach the eastern countries across the ocean in the other hemisphere. But if you go overland - through our hemisphere, then the spice countries will be in the east...”

Obviously, Columbus then informed Toscanelli about his project, since in his second letter he wrote to the Genoese: “I consider your project of sailing from east to west... noble and great. I am pleased to see that I was well understood.” In the 15th century No one yet knew how land and ocean were distributed on Earth. Toscanelli almost doubled the extent of the Asian continent from west to east and accordingly underestimated the width of the ocean separating Southern Europe from China in the west, defining it as a third of the circumference of the Earth, i.e., according to his calculations, less than 12 thousand km Japan (Chipangu) lay, according to Toscanelli, approximately 2 thousand km east of China, and, therefore, from Lisbon to Japan you need to travel less than 10 thousand km; The Azores or Canary Islands and the mythical Antilia could serve as stages in this transition. Columbus made his own amendments to this calculation, relying on some astronomical and geographical books: it is most convenient to sail to East Asia through the Canary Islands, from where you need to go 4.5-5.0 thousand km to the west to reach Japan. According to the French geographer of the 18th century. Jean Anville, it was "the greatest mistake that led to the greatest discovery." Neither the originals nor copies of Toscanelli’s map have reached us, but it has been reconstructed more than once on the basis of his letters.

Columbus proposed his project Joao II. After much delay, the Portuguese king handed over his project in 1484 to the scientific council, which had just been organized to compile navigation manuals. The Council rejected Columbus's evidence. A certain role in the king’s refusal was also played by the excessive rights and advantages that Columbus negotiated for himself if the enterprise was successful. The Genoese left Portugal with his young son Diego. According to the traditional version, in 1485 Columbus arrived in the city of Palos near the Gulf of Cadiz and found shelter near Palos, in the Rabida monastery. The abbot became interested in the project and sent Columbus to influential monks, who recommended him to the Castilian grandees, including the Duke Medinaceli. These recommendations only hurt the matter: Isabel was suspicious of an enterprise that, if successful, would enrich her political opponents - large feudal lords - and contribute to the growth of their influence. The Duke asked Isabella to allow the organization of the expedition at his own expense. The Queen ordered that the project be submitted to a special commission for consideration.

The commission, consisting of monks and courtiers, gave a negative conclusion four years later. It didn't reach us. If you believe the biographers of Columbus in the 16th century, the commission cited various absurd motives, but did not deny the sphericity of the Earth: at the end of the 15th century. A clergyman claiming to be learned would hardly dare to dispute this truth. ( On the contrary, Christian writers at that time tried to reconcile the data confirming the spherical shape of the Earth with biblical concepts, because outright denial of the truth, which had become generally known, could damage the already shaken authority of the church. Let us note by the way: the version of the ceremonial meeting of the council of the University of Salamana, at which Columbus’s project was allegedly rejected on the grounds that the learned men were outraged by his considerations about the sphericity of the Earth, is fictitious from beginning to end). However, the kings have not yet expressed their final judgment. In 1487-1488 Columbus received benefits from the treasury, but his business did not move forward while the kings were busy with the war. But he found the most reliable point of support: with the help of the monks, he became close to Spanish financiers. This was the right path that led him to victory. In 1491, Columbus again appeared in the Rabid monastery and, through the abbot, met Martin Alonso Ponson, an experienced sailor and influential Palos shipwright. At the same time, Columbus's ties with royal financial advisers and Seville merchants and bankers strengthened.

At the end of 1491, Columbus's project was again considered by a commission, and prominent lawyers took part in it, along with theologians and cosmographers. And this time the project was rejected: Columbus’s demands were considered excessive. The king and queen joined in the decision, and Columbus headed to France. At that moment, a man appeared to Isabella Luis Santangel, the head of the largest trading house, the closest financial adviser to the kings, and convinced her to accept the project, promising a loan to equip the expedition. A policeman was sent for Columbus, who caught up with him near Granada and escorted him to the court. On April 17, 1492, the kings expressed written consent to the draft treaty with Columbus. The most important article of this document read: “Their Highnesses, as lords of the seas and oceans, grant Don Cristobal Colon their admiralship of all the islands and continents that he personally ... discovers or acquires in these seas and oceans, and after his death [they grant] to his heirs and descendants in perpetuity this title with all the privileges and prerogatives appertaining thereto... Their Highnesses appoint Columbus as their viceroy and chief ruler in... the islands and continents which he... discovers or acquires, and to govern each of them will have to elect the one who is most suitable for this service...” (from the candidates nominated by Columbus).

On April 30, the King and Queen officially confirmed the granting of the title "Don" to Columbus and his heirs (which meant that he was elevated to the dignity of nobility) and, if successful, the titles of admiral, viceroy and governor, as well as the right to receive salaries for these positions , a tenth of the net income from new lands and the right to examine criminal and civil cases. The overseas expedition was viewed by the crown primarily as a risky trading venture. The Queen agreed after seeing that the project was supported by major financiers. Luis Santangel and a representative of the Seville merchants lent 1,400,000 maravedis to the Castilian crown. ( This is equivalent to almost 9.7 thousand gold dollars in 1934 prices. At the end of the 15th century. The sailor's salary was 12 maravedis per day, a pound of wheat cost 43.4 maravedis). The support of representatives of the bourgeoisie and influential churchmen predetermined the success of Columbus's efforts.

Composition and purpose of Columbus's first expedition

Pinzón, Martin Alonso 1441 - 1493

Spanish navigator in the West Indies. Captain of the Pinta and member of Columbus's first expedition. Brother of Francisco Martin Pinzon and Vicente Yanez Pinzon, uncle of Arias Martin Pinzon.

Columbus was provided with two ships. The crew was recruited from residents of Palos and a number of other port cities. Columbus equipped the third ship - Martin Pinson and his brothers helped him raise funds. The flotilla team consisted of 90 people. Columbus raised the admiral's flag on the Santa Maria, the largest ship of the flotilla, which he, perhaps not entirely deservedly, characterized as "a bad ship, unfit for discovery." The elder Pinson was appointed captain of the Pinta - Martin Alonso; captain of the smallest ship "Nina" ("Baby") - the younger Pinson - Vicente Yañez. There are no documents preserved about the size of these ships, and the opinions of historians differ greatly: the tonnage of the Santa Maria is determined by S. E. Morison at 100 tons, the Pinta - about 60 tons, the Niña - about 50 tons.

Pinzon, Vicente Yanez 1460 - 1524

Spanish navigator in the West Indies, South America and Central America. Captain of the Niña, younger brother of Martin Alonso Pinzon and member of Columbus's first expedition.

There is extensive literature about the purpose of Columbus's first expedition. Among historians, a group of skeptics, the “anti-Columbians,” denies that Columbus set himself the goal of reaching Asia in 1492: the two main documents emanating from the “Catholic kings” and agreed upon with Columbus—the treaty and the “certificate of grant of title”—are not mentioned neither Asia nor any part of it. There are no place names at all. And the purpose of the expedition is formulated in deliberately vague terms, which is understandable - in these documents it was impossible to mention the “Indies”: papal grants confirmed in 1479 by Castile, the discovery of new lands south of the Canary Islands and “right up to the Indians” » was provided to Portugal. Therefore, Columbus beyond the Canary Islands headed directly west from the island. Hierro, not south. However, the mention of the mainland could only refer to Asia: according to ancient and medieval ideas, there could not be another continent in the northern hemisphere to the west of Europe, across the ocean. In addition, the agreement provides a list of goods that the kings and Columbus himself hoped to find overseas: “Pearls or precious stones, gold or silver, spices...”. All these goods were attributed to the “Indies” by medieval geographical tradition.

It is unlikely that the main task was the discovery of the legendary islands. The island of Brazil was then associated with a valuable Brazilian tree, but nothing is said about it in the documents; O. Antilia - with the legend of the "Seven Cities", founded by bishops who fled there. If Antilia existed, it was ruled by Christian sovereigns; the kings legally could not grant anyone the right to “purchase” Antilia for Castile and assign its management “forever” to the heirs of Columbus. According to Catholic tradition, such grants could only apply to non-Christian countries.

There is also no doubt that the crew of the flotilla was selected only for the purpose of establishing trade relations with a non-Christian (possibly Muslim) country, and not for the conquest of a large country; However, the possibility of “acquiring” individual islands was not excluded. The flotilla was obviously not intended for large-scale aggressive operations - weak weapons, a small crew, and the absence of professional military personnel. The expedition did not set out to promote the “holy” faith, despite Columbus’s later claims. On the contrary, there was not a single priest or monk on board, but there was a baptized Jew - a translator who knew a little Arabic, that is, the cult language of Muslims, not needed on the islands of Brazil, Antilia, etc., but he could useful in the “Indies”, which traded with Muslim countries. The king and queen sought to establish trade relations with the “Indies” - this was precisely the main goal of the first expedition. When Columbus, returning to Spain, reported that he had discovered “India” in the west and brought Indians (indios) from there, he believed that he had been where he was sent and where he wanted to go, and had done what he promised. This is what the initiators and participants of the first expedition thought. This explains the immediate organization of another, this time a large expedition. There were almost no skeptics in Spain at that time: they appeared later.

Crossing the Atlantic Ocean and discovering the Bahamas

On August 3, 1492, Columbus took ships out of Palos harbor. Off the Canary Islands it was discovered that the Pinta had leaked. Due to its repairs, only in September 1492 did the flotilla move away from the island. Homers. The first three days there was almost complete calm. Then a fair wind pulled the ships to the west, and so quickly that the sailors soon lost sight of Fr. Hierro. Columbus understood that the sailors' anxiety would grow as they moved away from their homeland, and decided to show in the ship's log and announce to the crew underestimated data on the distances traveled, while recording the correct ones in his diary. ( Its original has been lost. The so-called "Diary of Columbus's First Voyage" is a retelling compiled by Bartolomé Las Casas. According to S. Morison, “false” data on the distance traveled turned out to be more accurate than “correct” ones). Already on September 10, the diary noted that 60 leagues (about 360 km) were covered in a day, and 48 were calculated, “so as not to instill fear in people.” ( Quotes here and below from the book “The Travels of Christopher Columbus”). Further pages of the diary are replete with similar entries. On September 16, “they began to notice many tufts of green grass, and, as one could judge from its appearance, this grass had only recently been torn from the ground.” However, the flotilla spent three weeks moving west through this strange expanse of water, where there was sometimes “so much grass that the whole sea seemed to be swarming with it.” They threw the lot several times, but it did not reach the bottom. In the first days, the ships, carried by favorable winds, easily glided among the seaweed, but then, in the calm, they made almost no progress. This is how the Sargasso Sea was discovered.

"Santa Maria", "Pinta" and "Nina" leave Palos harbor. Gordon Miller

On October 10, 1492, after a month-long voyage, there was an attempted mutiny on the ship. Only thanks to the unyielding will of Columbus did the voyage continue. Paolo Novaresio, The Explorers, White Star, Italy, 2002

At the beginning of October, sailors and officers increasingly insistently demanded to change course: before this, Columbus had been steadily heading straight to the west. Finally, on October 7, he yielded, probably fearing a mutiny, and turned west-southwest. Three more days passed, and “the people could now stand it no longer, complaining about the long voyage.” The admiral calmed the sailors a little, convincing them that they were close to their goal and reminded them how far they were from their homeland. He persuaded some and promised rewards to others. On October 11, everything indicated the proximity of land. Great excitement gripped the sailors. At 2 o'clock in the morning on October 12, 1492 Rodrigo Triana, a sailor of the Pinta, saw land in the distance. In the morning the land opened up: “This island is very large and very level, and there are many green trees and water, and in the middle there is a very large lake. There are no mountains.” The first passage across the Atlantic Ocean in the subtropical zone from La Gomera to this island lasted 33 days. Boats were lowered from the ships. Columbus, with both Pinsons, a notary and the royal comptroller, landed on shore - now as an admiral and viceroy - planted the Castilian banner there, formally took possession of the island and drew up a notarial deed to this effect.

On the island the Spaniards saw naked people. And Columbus describes his first meeting with the Arawaks, a people who 20-30 years later were completely exterminated by the colonialists: “They swam to the boats where we were and brought us parrots, and cotton yarn in skeins, and darts, and many other things, and exchanged all this... But it seemed to me that these people were poor... They all walked around in what their mother gave birth to. And all the people I saw were still young... and they were built... well, and their bodies and faces were very beautiful, and their hair was coarse, just like horse hair, and short... (and their skin was so colors like the inhabitants of the Canary Islands, who are neither black nor white...). Some of them paint their faces, others paint their entire body, and there are also those who only have their eyes and nose painted. They do not carry or know [iron] weapons: when I showed them swords, they grabbed the blades and, out of ignorance, cut off their fingers. They don’t have any iron.”

On the island, Columbus was given “dry leaves that were especially valued by the inhabitants”: the first indication of tobacco. The Indians called their island Guanahani, the admiral gave it a Christian name - San Salvador ("Holy Savior"), which was assigned to one of the Bahamas islands, located at 24 ° N. w. and 74 ° 30 "W., - now Watling Island. Columbus noticed pieces of gold in the noses of some islanders. The gold allegedly came from somewhere in the south. From that moment on, he never tired of repeating in his diary that he would “find gold is where it will be born.” The Spaniards explored the western and northern coast of Guanahani Island in two days and discovered several villages in the distance, and Columbus was convinced that the inhabitants visited ships on one-tree canoes of various sizes. lifting from one to 40-45 people. "They propelled their boats with the help of an oar like a shovel... and walked at great speed"). To find the way to the southern lands, where “gold will be born,” Columbus ordered the capture of six Indians. Using their instructions, he gradually moved south.

Columbus named the islands southwest of Guanahani Santa Maria de Concepción (Frames) and Fernandina (Long Island). The local Indians seemed to him “more homely, courteous and reasonable” than the inhabitants of Guanahani. “I even saw them wearing clothes woven from cotton yarn, like a cloak, and they love to dress up.” Sailors who visited the islanders' houses saw hanging wicker beds tied to poles. “The beds and mats on which the Indians sleep are like nets and are woven from cotton yarn” (hammocks). But the Spaniards did not find any signs of gold deposits on the island. For two weeks the flotilla moved among the Bahamas. Columbus saw many plants with strange flowers and fruits, but none of them were familiar to him. In an entry dated October 15-16, he enthusiastically describes the nature of the archipelago. The last of the Bahamas islands, where the Spaniards landed on October 20, was named Isabella (Crooked Island).

Christopher Columbus's first voyage

Discovery of the northern coasts of Cuba and Haiti and return to Spain

From the Indians, the sailors heard about the southern island of Cuba, which, according to them, was very large and carried out a lot of trade.

On October 28, Columbus “entered the mouth of ... a very beautiful river” (Bariey Bay in the northeast of Cuba, 76° W). From the gestures of the inhabitants, Columbus realized that this land could not be circumnavigated by ship even in 20 days. Then he decided that he was located near one of the peninsulas of East Asia.

But there were no rich cities, no kings, no gold, no spices. The next day, the Spaniards advanced 60 km northwest along the coast of Cuba, expecting to meet with Chinese junks. But no one, not even the admiral himself, imagined that the path to China was extremely far - more than 15 thousand km in a straight line. Occasionally there were small villages along the coast. The admiral sent two people, ordering them to find the king and establish relations with him. One of the messengers spoke Arabic, but no one in this country understood “even” Arabic. Having moved a little away from the sea, the Spaniards found villages surrounded by cultivated fields with large houses that could accommodate hundreds of people, built from branches and reeds. Only one plant turned out to be familiar to Europeans - cotton. There were bales of cotton in the houses; women wove coarse fabrics from it or twisted nets from yarn. The men and women who met the newcomers “walked with brands in their hands and with grass used for smoking.” This is how Europeans saw tobacco smoking for the first time, and unfamiliar cultivated plants turned out to be maize (corn), potatoes and tobacco.

The ships again needed repairs, further sailing to the west seemed pointless: Columbus thought that he had reached the poorest part of China, but to the east the richest Japan should lie, and he turned back. The Spaniards dropped anchor in Gibara Bay, adjacent to Baria, where they stayed for 12 days. During the stay, the admiral learned about Fr. Babeke, where people “gather gold right along the coast,” and on November 13 he moved east to search. On November 20, “Pinta” disappeared; Columbus, suspecting treason, assumed that Martin Pinson wanted to discover this island for himself. For another two weeks, the remaining two ships sailed east and reached the eastern tip of Cuba (Cape Muncie). ( Columbus called this cape Alpha and Omega, which means, according to commentators, the beginning of Asia, if you come from the east, and the end of Asia, if you come from the west). On December 5, the admiral, after some hesitation, moved to the south-southeast, crossed the Windward Strait and on December 6 approached the land about which he had already collected information from the Cubans as a rich large island. Bohio. It was. Haiti; Columbus named it Hispaniola: ( “Hispaniola” literally means “Spanish Flu”, but in meaning it is more correct to translate “Spanish Island”) there, along the coast, “the most beautiful... valleys stretch, very similar to the lands of Castile, but in many ways superior to them.” Moving along the northern coast of Haiti, along the way he discovered Fr. Tortuga ("Turtle"). The sailors saw thin gold plates and small ingots among the inhabitants of Hispaniola. The “gold rush” was intensifying among them: “... the Indians were so simple-minded, and the Spaniards so greedy and insatiable, that they were not satisfied when the Indians for... a piece of glass, a shard of a broken cup or other worthless things gave them everything they could they wanted. But even without giving anything, the Spaniards sought to take... everything” (diary entry dated December 22).

On December 25, due to the negligence of the sailor on watch, the Santa Maria ran aground on a reef. With the help of the Indians, they managed to remove valuable cargo, guns and supplies from the ship. The small Niña could not accommodate the entire crew, and Columbus decided to leave some of the people on the island - the first attempt by Europeans to settle in Central America. 39 Spaniards voluntarily stayed on Hispaniola: life there seemed comfortable to them, and they hoped to find a lot of gold. Columbus ordered the construction of a fort from the wreckage of the ship, called Navidad (Christmas), armed it with cannons from the Santa Maria and supplied it with supplies for a year.

On January 4, 1493, the admiral went to sea and two days later met the Pinta off the northern coast of Hispaniola. Martin Pinson insisted that he “left the flotilla against his will.” Columbus pretended to believe: “It was not the time to punish the guilty.” Both ships were leaking, everyone was eager to return to their homeland as quickly as possible, and on January 16, the Niña and Pinta went out into the open ocean. The first four weeks of the voyage went well, but on February 12 a storm arose, and on the night of February 14, the Niña lost sight of the Pinta. As the sun rose, the wind increased and the sea became even more threatening. No one thought that it would be possible to avoid inevitable death. At dawn on February 15, when the wind died down a little, the sailors saw land, and Columbus correctly determined that he was located near the Azores. Three days later, "Nina" managed to approach one of the islands - Santa Maria.

On February 24, leaving the Azores, the Niña again encountered a storm, which drove the ship to the Portuguese coast near Lisbon. On March 15, 1493, the admiral brought the Niña to Palos, and on the same day the Pinta arrived there. Columbus brought to Spain news of the lands he had discovered in the west, some gold, several islanders never seen before in Europe, who began to be called Indians, strange plants, fruits and feathers of strange birds. In order to maintain the monopoly of discovery, he entered incorrect data into the ship’s logbook on the way back. The first news of the great discovery, which spread throughout Europe in dozens of translations, was a letter dictated by Columbus at the Azores to one of the persons who financed the expedition - Luis Santangel or Gabriel Sanchez.

The voyages of Christopher Columbus

First partition of the world

The news of Columbus's discovery of "Western India" alarmed the Portuguese. In their opinion, the rights granted to Portugal by the popes (Nicholas V and Calixtus III) in 1452 - 1456, the rights recognized by Castile itself in 1479, confirmed by Pope Sixtus IV in 1481, were violated - to own lands discovered south and east of Cape Bojador, "as far as the Indians." Now India seemed to be slipping away from them. The Castilian queen and the Portuguese king defended their rights to lands overseas. Castile relied on the right of first discovery, Portugal on papal grants. Only the head of the Catholic Church could resolve the dispute peacefully. The pope at that time was Alexander VI Borgia. It is unlikely that the Portuguese considered this pope, a Spaniard by birth (Rodrigo Borja), an impartial judge. But they could not ignore his decision.

Columbus shows the captured Caribs and the "gifts" they brought to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. R. Balaka, 1874 National Historical Museum, Buenos-Ayres, Argentina

On May 3, 1493, the pope made the first division of the world with the bull Jnter cetera (“By the way”), granting Castile rights to lands that it had discovered or would discover in the future—“lands lying opposite the western parts on the ocean” and not belonging to any or a Christian sovereign. In other words, Castile in the west received the same rights that Portugal had in the south and east. On May 4, 1493, in a new bull (second Jnter cetera), the pope tried to more precisely define the rights of Castile. He granted eternal possession to the Castilian kings “all the islands and continents... discovered and those that will be open to the west and south of a line drawn... from the Arctic Pole... to the Antarctic Pole... [This] line should stand at a distance of 100 leagues to the west and south of any of the islands commonly called the Azores and Cape Verde." It is clear that the boundary established by the second bull cannot be drawn on the map. Even then they knew for sure that the Azores lay much to the west of the Cape Verde Islands. And the expression “south of a line drawn... from... pole... to pole,” that is, south of the meridian, is simply absurd. Nevertheless, the papal decision formed the basis of the Spanish-Portuguese negotiations, which ended with the Treaty of Tordesillas on June 7, 1494. The Portuguese even then doubted that Columbus had reached Asia, and did not insist that the Spaniards completely abandon overseas voyages, but only sought to transfer the “papal meridian" further to the west. ( There were lone skeptics in Spain as well. The Italian humanist Pietro Martire (Peter the Martyr), who lived in Barcelona in those years and was close to the royal court, carried on extensive correspondence with his fellow countrymen. His letter dated November 1, 1493 contains the following phrases: “A certain Colon swam to the Western Antipodes, to the Indian coast, as he himself believes. He discovered many islands; They believe that it is precisely those... about which cosmographers have expressed the opinion that they are located near India, beyond the Eastern Ocean. I cannot dispute this, although it seems that the size of the globe leads to a different conclusion."

After much debate, the Spaniards made a big concession: the line was drawn 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. The treaty does not indicate from which island the 370 leagues should be counted and in which leagues the calculation should be made; we can assume that we are talking about a sea league (about 6 km). In addition, for cosmographers of that time, converting 370 leagues into degrees of longitude was very difficult. However, the discrepancies for these reasons (up to 5.5°) are insignificant compared to the errors due to the inability to determine longitude at that time; even in the 16th century. Because of this, there were errors of more than 45°. According to many historians, Portugal and Castile had a clear goal - to truly divide the globe between them, despite the fact that the papal bull of 1493 and the treaty of 1494 indicated only one, Atlantic, line of demarcation. But already in 1495, an opposite opinion was expressed, probably more consistent with the true intentions of the parties: the line is established only so that Castilian ships have the right to make discoveries in a western direction, and Portuguese ones - in the east of the “papal meridian”. In other words, the purpose of demarcation was not to divide the globe, but only to show rival sea powers different ways of discovering new lands.

(To be continued)

Reasons for Spain's overseas expansion

IN

about the second half of the 15th century. Feudalism in Western Europe was in the process of decay, large cities grew, and trade developed. Money became the universal means of exchange, the need for which increased sharply. Therefore, in Europe the demand for gold has increased greatly, which has increased the desire for the “Indies” - the birthplace of spices,” On the importance of spices for medieval cities, see: Arab trade routes. where there seems to be a lot of gold. But at the same time, as a result of the Turkish conquests, it became increasingly difficult for Western Europeans to use the old, eastern combined land and sea routes to the “Indies.” At that time, only Portugal was searching for southern sea routes. For other Atlantic countries by the end of the 15th century. only the path to the west across the unknown ocean remained open. The idea of ​​such a path appeared in Renaissance Europe in connection with the dissemination among a relatively wide range of interested parties of the ancient doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth, and long-distance voyages became possible thanks to the achievements in the second half of the 15th century. successes in shipbuilding and navigation.

These were the general prerequisites for the overseas expansion of Western European countries. The fact that it was Spain that was the first to send Christopher Columbus’s small flotilla to the west in 1492 is explained by the conditions that developed in this country by the end of the 15th century. One of them was the strengthening of Spanish royal power, previously limited. A turning point began in 1469, when Queen Isabella of Castile married the heir to the Aragonese throne, Ferdinand. Ten years later he became king of Aragon. Thus, in 1479, the largest Pyrenean states were united and a united Spain emerged. Skillful politics strengthened royal power. With the help of the urban bourgeoisie, the crowned couple curbed the rebellious nobility and large feudal lords. Having created in 1480–1485. Inquisition, the kings turned the church into the most terrible weapon of absolutism. The last Muslim Iberian state, the Emirate of Granada, could not withstand their onslaught for long. At the beginning of 1492, Granada fell. The eight-century process of the Reconquista ended, and “United Spain” entered the world stage.

Bartolome de Las Casas

"Archives of the Indies", Seville, Spain

Overseas expansion was in the interests of both the royal power itself and its allies - the urban bourgeoisie and the church. The bourgeoisie sought to expand the sources of primitive accumulation; the church - to spread its influence to pagan countries. The Spanish nobility could provide the military force to conquer the “pagan Indies.” This was both in his interests and in the interests of the absolutist royalty and the urban bourgeoisie. The conquest of Granada put an end to the almost continuous war with the Moors in Spain itself, a war that had been the trade of many thousands of hidalgos. Now they sat idle and became even more dangerous for the monarchy and cities than in the last years of the Reconquista, when the kings, in alliance with the townspeople, had to wage a stubborn struggle against the robber gangs of the nobles. It was necessary to find a way out for the accumulated energy of the hidalgo. The solution, beneficial for the crown and the cities, for the clergy and nobility, was overseas expansion.

The royal treasury, especially the Castilian one, was constantly empty, and overseas expeditions to Asia promised fabulous profits. The Hidalgos dreamed of land holdings overseas, but even more so of the gold and jewelry of “China” and “India,” since most of the nobles were in debt like silk to the moneylenders. The desire for profit was combined with religious fanaticism - a consequence of the centuries-old struggle of Christians against Muslims. One should not, however, exaggerate its importance in Spanish (as well as Portuguese) colonial expansion. For the initiators and organizers of overseas expansion, for the leaders of the Conquest, religious zeal was a familiar and convenient mask under which the desire for power and personal gain was hidden. Bishop Bartolomé Las Casas, a contemporary of Columbus, the author of “The Shortest Report of the Ruin of India” and the multi-volume “History of India,” described the conquistadors with amazing force with his catchphrase: “They walked with a cross in their hand and with an insatiable thirst for gold in their hearts.” “Catholic kings” zealously defended the interests of the church only when they coincided with their personal ones. That Columbus in this case was no different from the kings is clearly evident from those documents that were personally written or dictated by him.

Christopher Columbus and his project

WITH

porn almost all the facts from the life of Columbus, Columbus is the Latinized form of the Italian surname Colombo. In Spain his name was Cristoval Colon. relating to his youth and long stay in Portugal. It can be considered established, although with some doubt, that he was born in the autumn of 1451 in Genoa into a very poor Catholic family. At least until 1472, he lived in Genoa itself or (from 1472) in Savona and, like his father, was a member of a woolen guild. It is not known whether Columbus studied at any school, but it has been proven that he read in four languages ​​- Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Latin, and read a lot and, moreover, very carefully. Probably, Columbus's first long voyage dates back to the 70s: documents contain indications of his participation in the Genoese trade expeditions that visited in 1474 and 1475. O. Chios in the Aegean Sea.

In May 1476, Columbus went by sea to Portugal as a clerk at a Genoese trading house and lived there for nine years - in Lisbon, Madeira and Porto Santo. According to him, he visited both England and Guinea, in particular the Gold Coast. We, however, do not know in what capacity he sailed - a sailor or a clerk at a trading house. But already during his first expedition, Columbus, despite the inevitable mistakes and failures of a new enterprise, proved himself to be a very experienced sailor, who combined the qualities of a captain, astronomer and navigator. He not only completely mastered the art of navigation, but also raised it to a higher level. According to the traditional version, Columbus, back in 1474, sought advice regarding the shortest sea route to “India” Paolo Toscanelli, astronomer and geographer. The Florentine sent in response a copy of his letter to the Portuguese scholar-monk, who had addressed him earlier on behalf of the king Afonso V. In this letter, Toscanelli pointed out that there was a shorter route across the ocean to the spice countries than the one that the Portuguese were looking for when sailing along the western coast of Africa. “I know that the existence of such a path can be proven on the basis that the Earth is a sphere. Nevertheless, to facilitate the undertaking, I am sending... a map made by me... It shows your coasts and islands, from where you must sail continuously to the west; and the places where you will arrive; and how far you should keep from the pole or from the equator; and how far you must travel to reach the countries where there are the most various spices and precious stones. Do not be surprised that I call the country where spices grow west, while they are usually called east, because people sailing steadily westward will reach the eastern countries across the ocean in the other hemisphere. But if you go overland - through our hemisphere, then the spice countries will be in the east...”

Obviously, Columbus then informed Toscanelli about his project, since in his second letter he wrote to the Genoese: “I consider your project of sailing from east to west... noble and great. I am pleased to see that I was well understood.” In the 15th century No one yet knew how land and ocean were distributed on Earth. Toscanelli almost doubled the extent of the Asian continent from west to east and accordingly underestimated the width of the ocean separating Southern Europe from China in the west, defining it as a third of the circumference of the Earth, i.e., according to his calculations, less than 12 thousand km Japan (Chipangu) lay, according to Toscanelli, approximately 2 thousand km east of China, and, therefore, from Lisbon to Japan you need to travel less than 10 thousand km; The Azores or Canary Islands and the mythical Antilia could serve as stages in this transition. Columbus made his own amendments to this calculation, relying on some astronomical and geographical books: it is most convenient to sail to East Asia through the Canary Islands, from where you need to go 4.5–5.0 thousand km to the west to reach Japan. According to the French geographer of the 18th century. Jean Anville, it was "the greatest mistake that led to the greatest discovery." Neither the originals nor copies of Toscanelli’s map have reached us, but it has been reconstructed more than once on the basis of his letters.

Columbus proposed his project Joao II. After much delay, the Portuguese king handed over his project in 1484 to the scientific council, which had just been organized to compile navigation manuals. The Council rejected Columbus's evidence. A certain role in the king’s refusal was also played by the excessive rights and advantages that Columbus negotiated for himself if the enterprise was successful. The Genoese left Portugal with his young son Diego. According to the traditional version, in 1485 Columbus arrived in the city of Palos near the Gulf of Cadiz and found shelter near Palos, in the Rabida monastery. The abbot became interested in the project and sent Columbus to influential monks, who recommended him to the Castilian grandees, including the Duke Medinaceli. These recommendations only hurt the matter: Isabel was suspicious of an enterprise that, if successful, would enrich her political opponents - large feudal lords - and contribute to the growth of their influence. The Duke asked Isabella to allow the organization of the expedition at his own expense. The Queen ordered that the project be submitted to a special commission for consideration.

The commission, consisting of monks and courtiers, gave a negative conclusion four years later. It didn't reach us. If you believe the biographers of Columbus in the 16th century, the commission cited various absurd motives, but did not deny the sphericity of the Earth: at the end of the 15th century. A clergyman claiming to be learned would hardly dare to dispute this truth. On the contrary, Christian writers at that time tried to reconcile the data confirming the spherical shape of the Earth with biblical concepts, because outright denial of the truth, which had become generally known, could damage the already shaken authority of the church. Let us note by the way: the version of the ceremonial meeting of the council of the University of Salamana, at which Columbus’s project was allegedly rejected on the grounds that the learned men were outraged by his ideas about the sphericity of the Earth, is fictitious from beginning to end. However, the kings have not yet expressed their final judgment. In 1487–1488 Columbus received benefits from the treasury, but his business did not move forward while the kings were busy with the war. But he found the most reliable point of support: with the help of the monks, he became close to Spanish financiers. This was the right path that led him to victory. In 1491, Columbus again appeared in the Rabid monastery and, through the abbot, met Martin Alonso Ponson, an experienced sailor and influential Palos shipwright. At the same time, Columbus's ties with royal financial advisers and Seville merchants and bankers strengthened.

At the end of 1491, Columbus's project was again considered by a commission, and prominent lawyers took part in it, along with theologians and cosmographers. And this time the project was rejected: Columbus’s demands were considered excessive. The king and queen joined in the decision, and Columbus headed to France. At that moment, a man appeared to Isabella Luis Santangel, the head of the largest trading house, the closest financial adviser to the kings, and convinced her to accept the project, promising a loan to equip the expedition. A policeman was sent for Columbus, who caught up with him near Granada and escorted him to the court. On April 17, 1492, the kings expressed written consent to the draft treaty with Columbus. The most important article of this document read: “Their Highnesses, as lords of the seas and oceans, grant Don Cristobal Colon their admiralship of all the islands and continents that he personally ... discovers or acquires in these seas and oceans, and after his death [they grant] to his heirs and descendants in perpetuity this title with all the privileges and prerogatives appertaining thereto... Their Highnesses appoint Columbus as their viceroy and chief ruler in... the islands and continents which he... discovers or acquires, and to govern each of them will have to elect the one who is most suitable for this service...” (from the candidates nominated by Columbus).

On April 30, the king and queen officially confirmed the award of the title “don” to Columbus and his heirs (this meant that he had been elevated to the dignity of nobility) and. if successful, the titles of admiral, viceroy and governor, as well as the right to receive salaries for these positions, a tenth of the net income from the new lands and the right to try criminal and civil cases. The overseas expedition was viewed by the crown primarily as a risky trading venture. The Queen agreed after seeing that the project was supported by major financiers. Luis Santangel and a representative of the Seville merchants lent 1,400,000 maravedis to the Castilian crown. This is equivalent to almost 9.7 thousand gold dollars in 1934 prices. At the end of the 15th century. The sailor's salary was 12 maravedis per day, a pound of wheat cost 43.4 maravedis. The support of representatives of the bourgeoisie and influential churchmen predetermined the success of Columbus's efforts.

Composition and purpose of Columbus's first expedition

TO

Olumbus was provided with two ships. The crew was recruited from residents of Palos and a number of other port cities. Columbus equipped the third ship - Martin Pinson and his brothers helped him raise funds. The flotilla team consisted of 90 people. Columbus raised the admiral's flag on the Santa Maria, the largest ship of the flotilla, which he, perhaps not entirely deservedly, characterized as "a bad ship, unfit for discovery." The elder Pinson was appointed captain of the Pinta - Martin Alonso; captain of the smallest ship "Ninya" ("Baby") - the younger Pinson - Vicente Yañez. There are no documents preserved about the size of these ships, and the opinions of historians differ greatly: the tonnage of the Santa Maria is determined by S. E. Morison at 100 tons, the Pinta - about 60 tons, the Niña - about 50 tons.

There is extensive literature about the purpose of Columbus's first expedition. Among historians, a group of skeptics, the “anti-Columbians,” denies that Columbus set himself the goal of reaching Asia in 1492: in the two main documents emanating from the “Catholic kings” and agreed upon with Columbus - the treaty and the “certificate of grant of title” - it is not mentioned neither Asia nor any part of it. There are no place names at all. And the purpose of the expedition is formulated in deliberately vague terms, which is understandable - in these documents it was impossible to mention the “Indies”: papal grants confirmed in 1479 by Castile, the discovery of new lands south of the Canary Islands and “right up to the Indians” » was provided to Portugal. Therefore, Columbus, beyond the Canary Islands, headed directly west from the island. Hierro, not south. However, the mention of the mainland could only refer to Asia: according to ancient and medieval ideas, there could not be another continent in the northern hemisphere to the west of Europe, across the ocean. In addition, the agreement provides a list of goods that the kings and Columbus himself hoped to find overseas: “Pearls or precious stones, gold or silver, spices...” All these goods were attributed to the “Indies” by medieval geographical tradition.

It is unlikely that the main task was the discovery of the legendary islands. The island of Brazil was then associated with a valuable Brazilian tree, but nothing is said about it in the documents; O. Antilia - with the legend of the "Seven Cities", founded by bishops who fled there. If Antilia existed, it was ruled by Christian sovereigns; the kings legally could not grant anyone the right to “purchase” Antilia for Castile and assign its management “forever” to the heirs of Columbus. According to Catholic tradition, such grants could only apply to non-Christian countries.

There is also no doubt that the crew of the flotilla was selected only for the purpose of establishing trade relations with a non-Christian (possibly Muslim) country, and not for the conquest of a large country; However, the possibility of “acquiring” individual islands was not excluded. The flotilla was obviously not intended for large-scale aggressive operations - weak weapons, a small crew, and the absence of professional military personnel. The expedition did not set out to promote the “holy” faith, despite Columbus’s later claims. On the contrary, there was not a single priest or monk on board, but there was a baptized Jew - translator who knew a little Arabic, i.e. the cult language of Muslims, not needed on the islands of Brazil, Antilia, etc., but he could useful in the “Indies”, which traded with Muslim countries. The king and queen sought to establish trade relations with the “Indies” - this was precisely the main goal of the first expedition. When Columbus, returning to Spain, reported that he had discovered “India” in the west and brought Indians (indios) from there, he believed that he had been where he was sent and where he wanted to go, and had done what he promised. This is what the initiators and participants of the first expedition thought. This explains the immediate organization of another, this time a large expedition. There were almost no skeptics in Spain at that time: they appeared later.

On August 3, 1492, Columbus took ships out of Palos harbor. Off the Canary Islands it was discovered that the Pinta had leaked. Due to its repairs, only in September 1492 did the flotilla move away from the island. Homers. The first three days there was almost complete calm. Then a fair wind pulled the ships to the west, and so quickly that the sailors soon lost sight of Fr. Hierro. Columbus understood that the sailors' anxiety would grow as they moved away from their homeland, and decided to show in the ship's log and announce to the crew underestimated data on the distances traveled, while recording the correct ones in his diary. Its original has been lost. The so-called "Diary of Columbus's First Voyage" is a retelling compiled by Bartolomé Las Casas. According to S. Morison, “false” data on the distance traveled turned out to be more accurate than “correct” ones. Already on September 10, the diary noted that 60 leagues (about 360 km) were covered in a day, and 48 were calculated, “so as not to instill fear in people.” Quotes here and below are from the book “The Voyages of Christopher Columbus.” Further pages of the diary are replete with similar entries. On September 16, “they began to notice many tufts of green grass, and, as one could judge from its appearance, this grass had only recently been torn from the ground.” However, the flotilla spent three weeks moving west through this strange expanse of water, where there was sometimes “so much grass that the whole sea seemed to be swarming with it.” They threw the lot several times, but it did not reach the bottom. In the first days, the ships, carried by favorable winds, easily glided among the seaweed, but then, in the calm, they made almost no progress. This is how the Sargasso Sea was discovered.

Paolo Novaresio, The Explorers, White Star, Italy, 2002

At the beginning of October, sailors and officers increasingly insistently demanded to change course: before this, Columbus had been steadily heading straight to the west. Finally, on October 7, he yielded, probably fearing a mutiny, and turned west-southwest. Three more days passed, and “the people could now stand it no longer, complaining about the long voyage.” The admiral calmed the sailors a little, convincing them that they were close to their goal and reminded them how far they were from their homeland. He persuaded some and promised rewards to others. On October 11, everything indicated the proximity of land. Great excitement gripped the sailors. At 2 o'clock in the morning on October 12, 1492. Rodrigo Triana, a sailor of the Pinta, saw land in the distance. In the morning the land opened up: “This island is very large and very level, and there are many green trees and water, and in the middle there is a very large lake. There are no mountains.” The first passage across the Atlantic Ocean in the subtropical zone from La Gomera to this island lasted 33 days. Boats were lowered from the ships. Columbus, with both Pinsons, a notary and the royal comptroller, landed on shore - now as an admiral and viceroy - planted the Castilian banner there, formally took possession of the island and drew up a notarial deed to this effect.

On the island the Spaniards saw naked people. And Columbus describes his first meeting with the Arawaks, a people who 20-30 years later were completely exterminated by the colonialists: “They swam to the boats where we were and brought us parrots, and cotton yarn in skeins, and darts, and many other things, and exchanged all this... But it seemed to me that these people were poor... They all walked around in what their mother gave birth to. And all the people I saw were still young... and they were built... well, and their bodies and faces were very beautiful, and their hair was coarse, just like horse hair, and short... (and their skin was so colors like the inhabitants of the Canary Islands, who are neither black nor white...). Some of them paint their faces, others paint their entire body, and there are also those who only have their eyes and nose painted. They do not carry or know [iron] weapons: when I showed them swords, they grabbed the blades and, out of ignorance, cut off their fingers. They don’t have any iron.”

On the island, Columbus was given “dry leaves that were especially valued by the inhabitants”: the first indication of tobacco. The Indians called their island Guanahani, the admiral gave it a Christian name - San Salvador ("Holy Savior"), which was assigned to one of the Bahamas islands, lying at 24° N. w. and 74° 30" W., - now Watling Island. Columbus noticed pieces of gold in the noses of some islanders. The gold allegedly came from somewhere in the south. From that moment on, he never tired of repeating in his diary that he would “find gold is where it will be born.” The Spaniards explored the western and northern coast of Guanahani Island in two days and discovered several villages in the distance, and Columbus was convinced that the inhabitants visited ships on one-tree canoes of various sizes. lifting from one to 40–45 people. “They propelled their boats with the help of a shovel-like oar... and walked at great speed.” To find the way to the southern lands, where “gold will be born,” Columbus ordered the capture of six Indians. Using their instructions, he gradually moved south.

Columbus named the islands southwest of Guanahani Santa Maria de Concepción (Frames) and Fernandina (Long Island). The local Indians seemed to him “more homely, courteous and reasonable” than the inhabitants of Guanahani. “I even saw them wearing clothes woven from cotton yarn, like a cloak, and they love to dress up.” Sailors who visited the islanders' houses saw hanging wicker beds tied to poles. “The beds and mats on which the Indians sleep are like nets and are woven from cotton yarn” (hammocks). But the Spaniards did not find any signs of gold deposits on the island. For two weeks the flotilla moved among the Bahamas. Columbus saw many plants with strange flowers and fruits, but none of them were familiar to him. In an entry from October 15–16, he enthusiastically describes the nature of the archipelago. The last of the Bahamas islands, where the Spaniards landed on October 20, was named Isabella (Crooked Island).

t Indian sailors heard about the southern island of Cuba, which, according to them, is very large and conducts great trade.

On October 28, Columbus “entered the mouth of ... a very beautiful river” (Bariey Bay in the northeast of Cuba, 76° W). From the gestures of the inhabitants, Columbus realized that this land could not be circumnavigated by ship even in 20 days. Then he decided that he was located near one of the peninsulas of East Asia.

But there were no rich cities, no kings, no gold, no spices. The next day, the Spaniards advanced 60 km northwest along the coast of Cuba, expecting to meet with Chinese junks. But no one, not even the admiral himself, imagined that the path to China was extremely far - more than 15 thousand km in a straight line. Occasionally there were small villages along the coast. The admiral sent two people, ordering them to find the king and establish relations with him. One of the messengers spoke Arabic, but no one in this country understood “even” Arabic. Having moved a little away from the sea, the Spaniards found villages surrounded by cultivated fields with large houses that could accommodate hundreds of people, built from branches and reeds. Only one plant turned out to be familiar to Europeans - cotton. There were bales of cotton in the houses; women wove coarse fabrics from it or twisted nets from yarn. The men and women who met the newcomers “walked with brands in their hands and with grass used for smoking.” This is how Europeans saw tobacco smoking for the first time, and unfamiliar cultivated plants turned out to be maize (corn), potatoes and tobacco.

The ships again needed repairs, further sailing to the west seemed pointless: Columbus thought that he had reached the poorest part of China, but to the east the richest Japan should lie, and he turned back. The Spaniards dropped anchor in Gibara Bay, adjacent to Baria, where they stayed for 12 days. During the stay, the admiral learned about Fr. Babeke, where people “gather gold right along the coast,” and on November 13 he moved east to search. On November 20, “Pinta” disappeared; Columbus, suspecting treason, assumed that Martin Pinson wanted to discover this island for himself. For another two weeks, the remaining two ships sailed east and reached the eastern tip of Cuba (Cape Muncie). Columbus called this cape Alpha and Omega, which means, according to commentators, the beginning of Asia, if you come from the east, and the end of Asia, if you come from the west. On December 5, the admiral, after some hesitation, moved to the south-southeast, crossed the Windward Strait and on December 6 approached the land about which he had already collected information from the Cubans as a rich large island. Bohio. It was. Haiti; Columbus named it Hispaniola: “Hispaniola” literally means “Spanish Flu”, but in meaning it is more correct to translate “Spanish Island”. there, along the coast, “the most beautiful... valleys stretch, very similar to the lands of Castile, but in many ways superior to them.” Moving along the northern coast of Haiti, along the way he discovered Fr. Tortuga ("Turtle"). The sailors saw thin gold plates and small ingots among the inhabitants of Hispaniola. The “gold rush” was intensifying among them: “... the Indians were so simple-minded, and the Spaniards so greedy and insatiable, that they were not satisfied when the Indians for... a piece of glass, a shard of a broken cup or other worthless things gave them everything they could they wanted. But even without giving anything, the Spaniards sought to take... everything” (diary entry dated December 22).

On December 25, due to the negligence of the sailor on watch, the Santa Maria ran aground on a reef. With the help of the Indians, they managed to remove valuable cargo, guns and supplies from the ship. The small Niña could not accommodate the entire crew, and Columbus decided to leave some of the people on the island - the first attempt by Europeans to settle in Central America. 39 Spaniards voluntarily stayed on Hispaniola: life there seemed comfortable to them, and they hoped to find a lot of gold. Columbus ordered the construction of a fort from the wreckage of the ship, called Navidad (Christmas), armed it with cannons from the Santa Maria and supplied it with supplies for a year.

On January 4, 1493, the admiral went to sea and two days later met the Pinta off the northern coast of Hispaniola. Martin Pinson insisted that he “left the flotilla against his will.” Columbus pretended to believe: “It was not the time to punish the guilty.” Both ships were leaking, everyone was eager to return to their homeland as quickly as possible, and on January 16, the Niña and Pinta went out into the open ocean. The first four weeks of the voyage went well, but on February 12 a storm arose, and on the night of February 14, the Niña lost sight of the Pinta. As the sun rose, the wind increased and the sea became even more threatening. No one thought that it would be possible to avoid inevitable death. At dawn on February 15, when the wind died down a little, the sailors saw land, and Columbus correctly determined that he was located near the Azores. Three days later, "Nina" managed to approach one of the islands - Santa Maria.

On February 24, leaving the Azores, the Niña again encountered a storm, which drove the ship to the Portuguese coast near Lisbon. On March 15, 1493, the admiral brought the Niña to Palos, and on the same day the Pinta arrived there. Columbus brought to Spain news of the lands he had discovered in the west, some gold, several islanders never seen before in Europe, who began to be called Indians, strange plants, fruits and feathers of strange birds. In order to maintain the monopoly of discovery, he entered incorrect data into the ship’s logbook on the way back. The first news of the great discovery, which spread throughout Europe in dozens of translations, was a letter dictated by Columbus near the Azores to one of the persons who financed the expedition - Luis Santangel or Gabriel Sanchez.

There is a story about Columbus's discovery of "Western India" that alarmed the Portuguese. In their opinion, the rights granted to Portugal by the popes were violated ( Nicholas V And Calixtus III) in 1452 - 1456, rights recognized by Castile itself in 1479, confirmed by the pope Sixtus IV in 1481, - to own lands open to the south and east of Cape Bojador, “all the way to the Indians.” Now India seemed to be slipping away from them. The Castilian queen and the Portuguese king defended their rights to lands overseas. Castile relied on the right of first discovery, Portugal - on papal grants. Only the head of the Catholic Church could resolve the dispute peacefully. Was a dad then Alexander VI Borgia. It is unlikely that the Portuguese considered this pope, a Spaniard by birth (Rodrigo Borja), an impartial judge. But they could not ignore his decision.

On May 3, 1493, the pope, with the bull Jnter cetera (“By the way”), made the first division of the world, granting Castile rights to lands that it had discovered or would discover in the future - “lands lying opposite the western parts on the ocean” and not belonging to any or a Christian sovereign. In other words, Castile in the west received the same rights that Portugal had in the south and east. On May 4, 1493, in a new bull (second Jnter cetera), the pope tried to more precisely define the rights of Castile. He granted eternal possession to the Castilian kings “all the islands and continents... discovered and those that will be open to the west and south of a line drawn... from the Arctic Pole... to the Antarctic Pole... [This] line should stand at a distance of 100 leagues to the west and south of any of the islands commonly called the Azores and Cape Verde." It is clear that the boundary established by the second bull cannot be drawn on a map. Even then they knew for sure that the Azores lay much to the west of the Cape Verde Islands. And the expression “south of a line drawn... from... pole... to pole,” that is, south of the meridian, is simply absurd. Nevertheless, the papal decision formed the basis of the Spanish-Portuguese negotiations, which ended Treaty of Tordesillas dated June 7, 1494. The Portuguese even then doubted that Columbus had reached Asia, and did not insist that the Spaniards completely abandon overseas voyages, but only sought to move the “papal meridian” further to the west. There were lone skeptics in Spain as well. The Italian humanist Pietro Martire (Peter the Martyr), who lived in Barcelona in those years and was close to the royal court, carried on extensive correspondence with his fellow countrymen. His letter dated November 1, 1493 contains the following phrases: “A certain Colon sailed to the Western Antipodes, to the Indian coast, as he himself believes. He discovered many islands; They believe that it is precisely those... about which cosmographers have expressed the opinion that they are located near India, beyond the Eastern Ocean. I cannot dispute this, although it seems that the size of the globe leads to a different conclusion.”

After much debate, the Spaniards made a big concession: the line was drawn 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. The treaty does not indicate from which island the 370 leagues should be counted and in which leagues the calculation should be made; we can assume that we are talking about a sea league (about 6 km). In addition, for cosmographers of that time, converting 370 leagues into degrees of longitude was very difficult. However, the discrepancies for these reasons (up to 5.5°) are insignificant compared to the errors due to the inability to determine longitude at that time; even in the 16th century. Because of this, there were errors of more than 45°. According to many historians, Portugal and Castile set themselves a clear goal - to truly divide the globe between themselves, despite the fact that the papal bull of 1493 and the treaty of 1494 indicated only one, Atlantic, line of demarcation. But already in 1495, an opposite opinion was expressed, probably more consistent with the true intentions of the parties: the line is established only so that Castilian ships have the right to make discoveries in a western direction, and Portuguese ones - in the east of the “papal meridian.” In other words, the purpose of demarcation was not to divide the globe, but only to show rival sea powers different ways of discovering new lands.

Web design © Andrey Ansimov, 2008 - 2014